• Naval Clashes
• Arabian Nightmares
• The Grand Alliance
• Missing Pages of History Books
• Everything is Fair in…
• Yes!!! History Does Lie

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The rise of the Arab Empire stands as one of the most dazzling and transformative chapters in the annals of history. In an awe-inspiring span of just 70 years, this mighty force spread its dominion across three continents, forever altering the fate of civilizations. Beginning around 630 A.D., the Arabs swept through the ancient world with unmatched vigor and valor, bringing under their control some of the most formidable empires and cultures of the time. The mighty Persians, the indomitable Byzantines, the sacred city of Jerusalem held by the Jews, the venerable Alexandria in Egypt, the proud Syrians, the Soghdian traders, and even the once-unassailable Roman naval fleet—all fell before their relentless march. Spain and Southern Italy were not spared, as the Arab Empire’s reach touched the farthest corners of Europe. These spectacular victories were swiftly followed by the rapid spread of Islam, with both the sword and the voice of preachers shaping the cultural and linguistic landscape. The Arabic language and culture became the dominant forces, suppressing and erasing the native traditions of the lands they conquered. Yet, in Bharat, a different tale unfolded. Despite the fact that Muslim rulers held sway over the Indian subcontinent for nearly 1200 years, the native culture—Hinduism—remained steadfast, unconquered, and unbroken. What then, stopped the Arab Empire’s relentless expansion from achieving the same transformation in Bharat that it had elsewhere? The answer lies in the unyielding spirit of the Hindu kingdoms and their valiant leaders. The first and foremost reason is that the Hindu kingdoms of the time, with their unshakable resolve, military prowess, and deep cultural roots, were more than a match for the forces of their adversaries. Despite the cruelty, barbarism, and firepower of the Muslim invaders, it was the constant and unrelenting resistance from Hindu kings and leaders that thwarted the waves of Islamic aggression, holding them at bay for nearly one and a half millennia. This resilient defiance, woven into the very fabric of Bharat’s identity, preserved the soul of Hindu civilization against overwhelming odds.

The history of India preceding the Islamic invasion, one of the most glorious and vibrant periods in human civilization, has long been deliberately overshadowed and sidelined in mainstream historical narratives. Academic textbooks, steeped in the biases of foreign victors, often fixate solely on the rule of invaders like the Mughals, the Slave Dynasties, and the Khaljis, relegating India’s indigenous history to the periphery. These narratives magnify the fleeting victories of foreign invaders while diminishing the countless, indomitable triumphs of Bharat’s sons and daughters. Textbooks highlight only the few instances where foreign forces, through sheer might and chance, managed to overpower the indigenous rulers. But these flashes of success are vastly overstated, casting a long shadow over the overwhelming and enduring victories of India’s native dynasties.

For instance, history often focuses on Babur’s single victory over the Rajput kings, neglecting to mention his four failed attempts prior to that success, during which he was fortunate to even escape with his life. Similarly, Akbar, the so-called “great,” is portrayed as the architect of the Mughal empire’s dominance over India, when in truth, much of his success was the result of alliances with the Rajput kingdoms. Almost 50% of Akbar’s victories were achieved with the help of Rajput allies—an integral fact that is systematically omitted. This distortion extends to the very conception of the “Islamic period” in India. The small and often transient dominions controlled by Islamic rulers, centered around Delhi, are misleadingly presented as a pan-Indian Islamic state, while the powerful Hindu empires flourishing across vast regions of the subcontinent during the same period are relegated to silence. The fabrications in textbooks and media extend further. Historical films and TV series often echo this distorted view, presenting a skewed narrative of Islamic domination. The truth is far more complex and far more glorious. From the time the first Muslim invaders made their way into Bharat, their presence was largely confined to the plains of the north. The northeast and the southern regions of India remained untouched by Islamic influence throughout the so-called “Islamic period.” The so-called medieval history of India is filled with scattered accounts of temporary Islamic territories that bubbled up and faded away in various corners of the subcontinent, yet the fierce, centuries-long resistance put up by the Hindu kingdoms goes unnoticed.

Historians have failed to explain the glaring absence of Islamic invaders in many parts of India during intermittent periods between the various waves of Arab, Ghaznavi, and Turkic invasions. The steadfast resistance by the Hindu kingdoms along the western borders is often ignored, and the narrative of “internal conflict” is falsely attributed as the cause of the fall of the Turks, masking the triumph of the united Bharat alliance against the invaders. While the Battle of Tours in 732 AD is widely celebrated in Europe as a defining moment in the defense against Islamic expansion, similar victories on Indian soil, such as those by Nagabhata I, Bappa Rawal, Pulakeshwaraja, Lalitaditya, Yashovarman, Bhoja, and Suhaldev, are largely unknown. The Arab historians, conveniently, never mentioned the crushing defeats they suffered at the hands of the Chalukyas, the Rajputs, the Kashmiris, the Rashtrakutas, or the Gurjaras. The bitter truth, one that many struggle to accept, is that Islam suffered its first and most significant blow when it attempted to expand into India. The unstoppable Arab Caliphate, which had spread from the shores of the Atlantic to the foot of the Hindu Kush in just 70 years, found its momentum halted by the indomitable spirit of Bharat. It took the Islamic invaders more than a century just to cross the Sindhu (Indus) River, and another 200 years before they finally set foot on the Indian mainland. Even then, until as late as 1557 A.D., Islam had failed to establish itself as a dominant force throughout India. The Islamic invaders were never able to penetrate the vast and unconquered regions of North-East India and much of Southern India. A close look at the chronology of events during this time reveals the tenacity and strength of Bharat’s resistance—an enduring force that kept the Islamic invaders at bay for centuries, preserving the rich cultural and spiritual heritage of India.

Naval Clashes

When we utter the word “Navy,” our minds often drift to the grand maritime empires of the Greeks and Romans, or even to the legendary naval expeditions of smaller tribes like the Vikings or the Gauls. The abundance of historical records highlighting the naval supremacy of European nations has, over time, overshadowed the rich and proud maritime history of India itself. India is typically renowned for the vastness and diversity of its armies, yet few are aware of the undeniable fact that Indian kingdoms not only maintained formidable naval forces, but their fleets were never decisively defeated by any external power. The true history, largely untold, reveals a remarkable truth: the first Islamic attempts to conquer Bharat were not launched across the land, but through the very seas that bordered the subcontinent. In the face of these maritime incursions, Indian naval defense proved to be an unbreakable bastion. The absence of any Arabic records celebrating a naval victory over India speaks volumes—despite their might and ambition, the invaders failed to pierce even the smallest hole in India’s indomitable naval defense.This is a testament to the unmatched strength, strategic brilliance, and naval might of India—a force that safeguarded her shores and preserved her civilization from external domination. India’s maritime history stands as a glorious chapter, too often overlooked, yet one that reflects the resilience and prowess of an ancient civilization.

636 A.D. – During the vigorous expansionist campaign of the second Caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, the first Arab invasion of Bharat occurred through a naval expedition aimed at conquering what is now the region of Thane, near Mumbai. At the same time, Arab fleets arrived at the ports of modern-day Oman and Bahrain. After swiftly and uneventfully capturing these coastal regions, the Caliph set his sights on his final frontier—Bharat. However, he soon realized that he was not facing a disorganized group of tribal warriors, but rather a highly sophisticated, battle-hardened, and well-equipped naval force. According to the Kitab Futuh Al-Buldan (Vol. 2, p. 209), translated by Francis Clark Murgotten, the Arab fleet was decisively repulsed by the Chalukya king, Pulakeshi II. This defeat marked a significant turning point, as it became clear that the military strength of Bharat was far more formidable than the invaders had anticipated. As a result of this crushing defeat, the Arab forces wisely chose to abandon their plans for further conquest of Bharat at that time (Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders Up to 1206 AD, p. 18, Dr. Ram Gopal Mishra).

636 A.D. – 637 A.D. – Recognizing that the Bharat navy could not be overcome through sheer brute force, the Caliphate adjusted its strategy, relying instead on agility and surprise attacks. Immediately following their retreat from the Chalukya kingdom, a second naval expedition was dispatched with the aim of conquering Barwas (also known as Barauz or Broach) on the coast of present-day southern Gujarat (Kitab Futuh Al-Buldan: Vol. 2, p. 209 — Al Baladhuri, translated by Francis Clark Murgotten). However, the Caliph’s forces were met with an unexpected challenge. Contrary to what they had anticipated, the Bharat navy did not operate as isolated fleets at various ports. Instead, a well-coordinated and strategic naval defense network was established along the entire coastline—an interconnected defensive system that the Arabs had failed to anticipate. As a result, this second attack was also repelled by King Pulakeshi II, and the Arab forces were successfully driven back once again.

643 A.D. – Upon witnessing the formidable power of the Chalukya dynasty, the Arab leaders reassessed the risks of further confrontation and shifted their focus to a comparatively less intimidating target: the state of Sindh. The third naval invasion, which also marked the first attack on Sindh, was launched against the port of Dewal, near present-day Karachi. However, the ruler of Sindh, King Chach Rai, proved to be unyielding when it came to defending his realm. Debal, a coastal town primarily inhabited by merchants, played a crucial role in the region’s economy. The Arabian fleet encountered the steadfast coastal forces of Chach Rai, who were as determined as their king. In a decisive confrontation, Sindh emerged victorious, successfully repelling the intruders. This defeat marked the end of the Arabian naval expeditions to Bharat. (The Chachnama: Volume 1 (1900), p. 57 — Translated from Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg).

When the regional governor was summoned by the Caliph to provide a detailed report on the extent of success against Al-Hind, the Caliphate received nothing but a series of disheartening news—tales of unconditional surrenders and, more strikingly, complete annihilations of Islamic forces. The powerful kingdoms along the western coast of the subcontinent had already demonstrated their unmatched strength, successfully withstanding and repelling the full wrath of the Caliphate. For the first time in Islamic history, an imperial campaign by the Caliphate had resulted in a resounding defeat. In the wake of this monumental failure, the leaders of the Arab army advised the Caliph to abandon any further thoughts of conquest in Hind, for the mighty kingdoms of Bharat had proven that they would never bow to foreign rule under any circumstance. This pivotal moment in history marked a significant turning point, as the indomitable spirit of Bharat’s kingdoms became undeniably clear to the invaders. (The History and Culture of the Indian People: Vol. 3 — The Classical Age, p. 169 — R. C. Majumdar; The Chachnama: Volume 1 (1900), p. 58 — Translated from Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg).

Arabian Nightmares

After their crushing naval defeat, the Arab Caliphate, undeterred by the humiliation, mobilized its royal army and launched a series of relentless land expeditions across the formidable Hindukush mountains. However, the experience on land proved to be no different from their earlier maritime devastation. Across the mighty Sindhu (Indus) River, the Hindu kingdoms, though relatively smaller in terms of territorial extent, displayed a strength and resilience far beyond what the Caliphate had anticipated. These kingdoms, fortified by their deep martial prowess and unwavering spirit, were able to outmatch the Caliphate in military might. The fierce resistance put forth by these kingdoms halted the Islamic invasion for nearly a century, marking a period of frustration and humiliation for the invaders. After enduring several crushing defeats and experiencing the full brunt of relentless opposition, the Caliph, recognizing the immense cost of further conflict, finally conceded to abandon the idea of Ghazwa-e-Hind—for the time being, at least. This remarkable chapter in the history of the Hindu kingdoms of modern-day Afghanistan remains largely obscured in the annals of contemporary scholarship, overshadowed and forgotten by many. Yet, it stands as a testament to the unyielding resolve of Bharat’s warriors, who held back the tide of invasion with unmatched valor and determination.

662 A.D. – Kikan was a primary target of Arab military campaigns during this period. The Arab general, Abdullah, launched an assault on Kikan with a large contingent of 4,000 Arab warriors. However, this small province was well-prepared for such an all-out attack. The Arab forces were met with such overwhelming resistance that the mountain passes quickly became a “valley of death” for them. The local population of Kikan rallied in large numbers to defend their homeland, and the Arab forces struggled to understand and counter the defensive traps set by the Kikan army. Unable to cope with the swift, lightning-fast strikes they had never anticipated, the Arab troops were decisively defeated by the valiant and fearless Kikan forces. Ultimately, the Islamic army was forced to flee to Makran, as “the whole mountainous region became alive with fighting men and the Mussulmans beat a hasty retreat” (The Chachnama: Volume 1 (1900), p. 61 — Translated from Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg).

670 A.D. – 680 A.D. – While Kikan demonstrated the military prowess of Bharat, the situation grew even more dire for the invaders when they confronted the true powerhouse of the region—Kabul. Under the leadership of Caliph Muawiyah (661–680 A.D.), the task of securing a permanent foothold along the shores of the Indus was undertaken. The Caliph concentrated much of the Caliphate’s power in this area to subjugate Kabul and Zabul. A large Arab army, led by Abdur Rehman, laid siege to Kabul. After a month-long siege, the Arabs managed to breach the kingdom’s defenses. However, news of the invasion spread rapidly to neighboring allies, and reinforcements arrived swiftly. The Caliphate, now overwhelmed by the sheer number of Bharat’s forces, was unable to sustain its position and was ultimately forced to retreat to Bust. The identity of the ruler of Kabul at that time remains unclear. (The History of India As Told by Its Own Historians, Vol. 2 — The Muhammadan Period, p. 415 — Elliot and Dawson).

683 A.D. – 685 A.D. – Following the turn of events in Kabul, the next Caliph, Al Mansur, sought to subdue another powerful region—Zabul, which was ruled by Ranawal (also known as Zunbil)—and forcefully extract financial tribute. Despite the relentless efforts of the Arab generals, they were never able to make a lasting impact, as Zabul was never fully subdued. The battle against Ranawal once again demonstrated the superiority of Bharat’s military forces over the Islamic invaders. Observing the numerical superiority of the Arab army, the king of Zabul lured them deep into Zabul’s territory. Under the false impression of an easy victory, the Arabs pressed forward, only to find themselves ensnared when Ranawal quietly blocked the mountain passes—their only route of retreat. This strategic move led to the complete capture of the Arab army. Although not explicitly mentioned in the sources, it can be assumed that the Arabs were unable to escape. Simultaneously, another branch of the Arab army suffered a devastating defeat in the Battle of Junzah against Kabul. The simultaneous defeats on two fronts forced the Arabs into a period of retreat and reflection. (Kitab Futuh Al-Buldan: Vol. 2, p. 153–154 — Al Baladhuri, translated by Francis Clark Murgotten; The History and Culture of the Indian People: Vol. 3 — The Classical Age, p. 168 — R. C. Majumdar).

692 A.D. – 695 A.D. – The next Caliph, Abdal Malik bin Marwan, was determined to complete the unfinished task of his predecessors and appointed Abdullah as governor to resume the raids on Kabul and Zabul. Despite their continued efforts, the Arabs faced heavy losses for years without achieving any significant results. In a final attempt to subdue the region, the Caliphate launched another offensive against Kabul. The governor of Iraq, Al-Hajjaj, dispatched one of his most capable generals, Ubaidullah, to subdue Kabul. This time, Ranawal, the king of Zabul, and Ratanpal, the king of Kabul, united their forces (Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders Up to 1206 A.D., p. 40 — Dr. Ram Gopal Mishra). Once again, the Arab army was lured into a trap, entering a dead-end area near Kabul. After their escape route was blocked, the Arab forces held their ground for several weeks before eventually submitting (Al Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 1 — Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries, p. 122 — Andre Wink). General Ubaidullah was forced to retreat, leaving his three sons as hostages with Ranawal, and a non-aggression treaty was signed between the two sides. However, the Arabs violated this agreement and launched another attack. This time, the Bharat forces were not as forgiving. In a decisive battle, the Arab army was utterly routed in the desert of Bust by the brave troops of Kabul and Zabul, and all major Arab leaders were killed (Kitab Futuh Al-Buldan: Vol. 2, p. 151 — Al Baladhuri, translated by Francis Clark Murgotten). After this catastrophic failure of Abdur Rehman’s military campaign, Al-Hajjaj was left with no option but to seek peace with the Hindu kingdoms. As a result, Al-Hind—as India was referred to in Arabic texts—remained unconquered, resisting even the mightiest military power of that time.

708 A.D. – After the repeated failures of the previous three Caliphs, the focus of the next Caliph’s campaign shifted to the prosperous southern kingdom of Sindh. For many days, the military might of Sindh successfully resisted the Arab imperialistic ambitions. However, the setbacks on other fronts had made the Arabs desperate, prompting them to launch a hasty attempt to conquer Sindh. In a calculated move, the Arabs sought to provoke political unrest by interfering with the trade activities of Sindh. The Caliphate imposed a blockade on the Sindh port of Dewal, aiming to crush the region’s economy. In response, King Dahir of Sindh was alerted to the large Arab expedition and immediately sent his son, Jaisiah, along with a 4,000-strong army that included horses, camels, and elephants to defend Dewal. Jaisiah’s forces engaged the Arabs in battle from early morning until evening, holding their ground relentlessly. Once again, the Arab invaders were overwhelmed and forced to flee for their lives (The Chachnama: Volume 1 (1900), p. 69 — Translated from Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg).

The news of the crushing defeat of the Arab armies in Sindh, Kabul, and Zabul left Caliph Al Walid crestfallen and disheartened. When once again asked for permission to launch another invasion of Sindh, the Caliph, weary from the relentless failures, discouraged his general by saying, “… This affair will be a source of great anxiety and so we must put it off; for every time the army goes (on such an expedition), vast numbers of Muslims are killed. So think no more of such a design.” (The Chachnama: Volume 1 (1900), p. 71 — Translated from Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg). This was perhaps the first time the Islamic expansion encountered such an immovable and resolute defensive line, and the Caliph and his forces could not bear the weight of their inability to overcome it. Despite this, the Hindu resistance ultimately faltered after a century of fierce conflict. However, the records reveal the lengths to which the Arabs resorted in their efforts to capture Sindh—resorting to treacherous tactics such as poisoning the sources of drinking water. In Kabul and Zabul, the Arab forces took refuge in a temple, where, ironically, the religious convictions of the Hindu soldiers prevented them from attacking the invaders within their sanctuary. This deeply ingrained respect for sacred places led to a situation where the Arabs were allowed to shelter from the full force of the Bharat army. In summary, the fall of these kingdoms did not occur due to direct military superiority but rather through a breakdown of the ethics of warfare. The Arabs’ resort to underhanded methods, including poison and sanctuary exploitation, marked a turning point in the conflict, ultimately leading to the subjugation of these once-unstoppable kingdoms.

The Grand Alliance

It took nearly a decade for the Arabs to recover from the shock of their failed attempts to cross the formidable Hindukush. Undeterred, the Caliphate poured all of its resources into the conquest of ‘Al-Hind’, as they referred to ancient Bharat, launching an aggressive push. In their desperation, the invaders even resorted to treacherous methods, including bio-terrorism, managing at last to breach the gateway into the Bharat mainland. Yet, the celebrations of the Caliphate were short-lived. What had seemed like a nightmare for the Islamic invaders in the border regions of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan was nothing compared to the fury that awaited them in the heart of Bharat. Once the river Sindhu (Indus) was crossed, the invaders found themselves in a land where raw power and unrelenting force were the foundation of warfare. The strategic battles, ambushes, and death-traps were replaced by brutal, direct confrontations. The Bharat armies hammered down upon the Arabs, their manpower rapidly diminishing under the onslaught. The final days of the Arab presence in the Bharat mainland arrived with an unprecedented and unforeseen alliance of Bharat kingdoms. This united front, rising against the Caliphate, proved to be the Caliphate’s undoing. The once seemingly invincible troops of the Arabs were decimated so thoroughly that it is said they did not dare to look back until they had crossed the Sindhu River again. In the aftermath, some of the Bharat kingdoms took the war to another level, even seizing territory from the Caliphate itself. The Arab invaders, who once believed themselves unstoppable, were humbled by the sheer power and unity of the Bharat kingdoms.

712 A.D. – The often-celebrated figure in Arabic history, Muhammad bin Qasim, led a massive Islamic army, launching simultaneous campaigns on two fronts—Kashmir and Kannauj. He dispatched a cavalry of 10,000 to Kannauj while personally leading his forces towards the frontier of Kashmir. However, little historical evidence remains regarding the outcomes of these expeditions. Given the absence of any lasting Islamic presence in these regions during this period, it can be reasonably inferred that Qasim did not achieve success. Furthermore, there appears to be no enduring impact in either of these kingdoms, suggesting that both campaigns resulted in yet another series of humiliating defeats for the Arabs.

715 A.D. – The fall of Sindh is often emphasized in Arab history, but an important aspect is frequently overlooked: Sindh mounted a formidable resistance just four years later under the leadership of Jai Singh, the son of King Dahir. In response to the setbacks suffered by the Islamic forces in Kashmir and Kannauj, Jai Singh managed to form strategic alliances through diplomacy and launched a counteroffensive against the Arabs. The allied forces of Sindh gained the upper hand against a demoralized Caliphate army, successfully reclaiming much of their lost territory. The Sindhi forces pushed as far as Brahmanabad (modern-day Multan), effectively restricting Arab rule to the western shores of the Indus River. 

730 A.D. – After the failure to penetrate the strongholds of the northern Bharat states, Junayd, the successor of Muhammad bin Qasim, shifted his focus toward the southwestern region of the Bharat mainland. The dominant forces in this region included the Gurjaras, Solankis, and Rastrakutas, with the Chalukyas also playing a significant role. To optimize his strategy, Junayd divided his army into two factions: one marched eastward to enter the Ganges plains, while the other moved southward to subdue the Deccan. On the eastern front, the Arab forces encountered Nagabhatt I of the Gurjaras. The Gurjaras proved to be a formidable opponent, and the Arabs suffered a devastating defeat. Nagabhatt I earned the distinction in Arab chronicles as one of Islam’s greatest adversaries. On the southern front, the Arabs met with equal misfortune as they faced the powerful military of Chalukya King Vikramaditya II. The renowned Pulakeshiraja, the army general under Vikramaditya II, was hailed as the savior of the Deccan. Some sources even suggest that Dantidurga, the ruler of the Rastrakutas, played an instrumental role in the defense against the Arab forces.

734 A.D. – Another Arab general, Hajjat, recognizing the absence of a strong, unified authority in the deserts of what is now modern-day Rajasthan, planned a swift attack on the region. However, a young and determined ruler, Bappa Rawal, emerged as a formidable force, uniting nearly all the Rajput clans under his leadership. Despite their previous internal divisions, the smaller provinces set aside their differences and united against a common enemy. In response, Hajjat appealed for assistance from neighboring Islamic provinces, which came to his aid. On the other side, the Solanki ruler Jaysingh (who may possibly be related to the Dahir dynasty) aligned himself with the Rajputs. For nearly two decades, the Arabs remained under constant threat from Bappa Rawal and his united forces. The city of Rawalpindi is said to be named in his honor, commemorating his leadership and legacy.

736 A.D. – The Arabs continued to face persistent struggles on both the Rajasthan and Gujarat (modern-day) frontiers, where they encountered united armies of the Bharat kingdoms. To prevent any military or tactical support from the northern kingdoms in these battles, the Caliph sent the governor of Bukhara, Momin, with a mission to invade Kashmir. Momin ravaged the Swat Valley and advanced into the Kaghan Valley (now in Pakistan). However, the Bharat kings had learned from their previous encounters. In response, the King of Kashmir, Lalitaditya, immediately initiated a ceasefire with his long-time adversary, Yashovarman, the King of Kannauj. These erstwhile rivals set aside their differences and united against the Arab forces. The Caliphate’s plan backfired, inadvertently opening a third front that worsened their situation. Instead of Arabs invading Kashmir and Kannauj, the combined forces of Lalitaditya and Yashovarman turned the tide and began invading Arab territories. Later, Lalitaditya extended his campaign into the Turkic region (modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan), where he ordered the captured Turkic army to shave half of their heads as punishment. Few rulers in history can claim to have seized Islamic territory, but Lalitaditya stands as one of those rare kings who achieved such a remarkable feat.

Battle(s) of Rajasthan: Arab Caliphate vs Indian Alliance – The Battle of Rajasthan marked the final campaign of united Bharat kings against the Caliphate, a turning point where the tides of war shifted dramatically. For the first time, the Arab Caliphate, which had long been the hunter, found itself the victim of a relentless and fierce counterattack. The question still lingers among historians: Was there a final, decisive battle? While some sources remain uncertain, the simultaneous campaigns across all three frontiers paint a picture of a massive, coordinated assault that turned the tide against the Arabs. The grand alliance of Bharat kings, which included the legendary Nagabhatt-I of the Gurjaras, Bappa Rawal of the Rajputs, Jaysingh of the Solankis, Lalitaditya of Kashmir, Yashovarman of Kannauj, Vikramaditya-II of the Chalukyas (with his Governor Pulakesiraja), Dantidurga of the Rastrakutas, and Jayabhat-IV of the Pratiharas, stretched from the towering Karakoram mountains to the Western Ghats. Together, these kingdoms formed an unbreakable force, a united front that stood in defiance of the Caliphate. The Arab army, which numbered over 70,000 soldiers, faced an unimaginable wrath—one that shattered their might and sent them fleeing in defeat. What makes this victory even more extraordinary is the history behind it. Before and after the Islamic presence in the region, these kingdoms were often in conflict, divided by their own territorial ambitions. Yet, when faced with a common enemy—an enemy bent on eradicating their way of life—they united as one. It’s impossible to ignore the emotional weight of this moment; it can only be described as a crusade to protect their religion, their culture, and their future. The united Bharat army, with its unmatched courage and resilience, delivered a blow so powerful that it broke the back of the Arab invasion, leaving the Caliphate in terror. The Prashasti pillar in Gwalior, erected by Mihirbhoj or King Bhoj (a descendant of Nagabhatt), immortalizes this monumental victory. The inscription on the pillar, which stands as a symbol of glory, recounts the historic success of this battle, a victory that would echo through the centuries. The Arabs, terrified by the loss, would not launch a major land invasion again for 300 long years. As the Arabian chronicler Suleiman wrote, there was no place of refuge to be found. He even referred to Nagabhatt as “the biggest enemy of Islam, who came in the way of the conquest of Uzain (Ujjain).” This victory was not just a military triumph—it was the triumph of spirit, of unity, and of faith. The Caliphate’s dreams of conquest crumbled before the indomitable will of Bharat’s united forces, leaving behind a legacy of resilience that would inspire generations to come.

759 A.D. – The Arabs revised their battle strategy once again, opting for the naval route for the fourth time in an attempt to assert their dominance over Saurashtra. It appears that the Caliphate intentionally sought to avoid any direct confrontation with the Chalukyas. However, this time, the legendary commander of the Saindhabas, Agguka I, thwarted the Caliphate’s efforts.

776 A.D. – The Caliphate had already endured significant losses and did not anticipate such a dramatic shift in the tide of war. After a relentless century-long effort, they had only managed to subdue the border tribes of Bharat. However, instead of Bharat’s forces yielding, the Islamic army encountered fiercer and more formidable resistance. In over 200 years of expansion, there had never been another instance where the Islamic expansion had been so decisively halted. Recognizing that further land-based offensives would only lead to greater losses for the Caliphate, they launched a final, desperate attempt by sending another naval fleet against the Saindhaba kings. This time, however, they suffered such a catastrophic defeat at the hands of Agguka I that the Arabian ambition of Ghazwa-e-Hind was completely extinguished. In the Saindhaba inscription, Agguka I is honored with the title Samudradhipati, meaning “Master of the Western Sea.”

986 A.D. – 987 A.D. – The decisive outcome of the Battle of Rajasthan likely sparked a renewed spirit among other indigenous kings who had previously been subjugated by the Arabs. King Jaypala of Udbhandapur had been patiently waiting for an opportune moment to strike. Seizing the opportunity to attack the enemy at its weakest, he swiftly assembled an army. Simultaneously, he dispatched diplomats to neighboring powerful kings, seeking military and tactical support, to which many responded favorably. References to the participation of various Rajput clans, as well as forces from Kanauj and the Gurjaras, indicate the formation of a formidable coalition. This united force advanced into the heartland of the Ghazni Islamic kingdom and captured it within a matter of days. According to Utbi, the battle continued for several days, during which the warriors of Subuktigin, including Prince Mahmood, were reduced to despair. While this victory was not lasting, Dr. Ram Gopal Mishra asserts that had such aggression and determination to defeat the enemy been present in subsequent Rajput rulers, Islam may never have gained a foothold in the Indian subcontinent.

The relentless struggle, beyond imagination, drained the military and economic resources of the Caliphate. With each passing day, the morale of the Arab army continued to deteriorate, and their confidence waned as they realized the futility of their century-long pursuit of the elusive Ghazwa-e-Hind. The Arabs had already endured enough in their protracted conflict against the kingdoms of Bharat, and the crushing defeat at the Battle of Rajasthan dealt the final, devastating blow. From that point on, the Arabs never returned to Bharat, neither by land nor by sea. Even Arab chroniclers themselves concede that after this defeat, Caliph Mahdi abandoned the ambition of conquering any part of India. The Arab provinces that remained were scattered, stripped of their power, with some surviving only by paying tribute to the mighty kingdoms of Bharat.

Missing Pages of History Books

After the Arabs relinquished their ambitions, the next wave of Islamic invasion in Bharat emerged after a span of three centuries, hailing from the Islamic provinces of Central Asia. Among these invaders, the most formidable was Mahmud of Ghazni, renowned for his seemingly indomitable streak of victories across 17 campaigns, during which he allegedly ravaged and laid waste to all of North-Western India. His legend paints a picture of unparalleled triumph, but the truth diverges from this grand narrative. Had such a catastrophic military conquest truly been realized, one would expect the entirety of Western India to have been swiftly absorbed into the folds of Islam, much like the fate of Persia (modern-day Iran). Yet, the reality stands in stark contrast. Despite Mahmud’s ostensible success, there exists no logical explanation as to why the Islamic Caliphate did not expand deeper into Central India, where his so-called victories should have paved the way for a widespread domination. From a military perspective, the very notion of 17 campaigns seems utterly incongruous when one considers that his initial triumph, portrayed as monumental, ought to have been decisive enough to secure the region once and for all. Yet, despite this supposed triumph, there is not a single permanent Islamic settlement to be found in any part of Western India to this day. Neither the indigenous Indian chronicles nor the Arabic accounts of the time offer substantial evidence of any major conflict that would alter the demographic makeup of the land. While a solitary battle is mentioned briefly in the Arabian texts, the remaining campaigns are only alluded to with varying degrees of ambiguity, and the absence of concrete proof suggests these invasions were, at best, mere border skirmishes or inconsequential clashes. Upon sifting through the most credible historical sources, it becomes clear that Mahmud’s ventures were neither as grand nor as enduring as the records claim. In fact, his campaigns can be more accurately described as a series of smaller-scale, short-lived forays marked by at least two decisive defeats and a consistent pattern of retreating in the face of adversity, desperately avoiding further humiliation. Thus, the true legacy of Mahmud of Ghazni is not one of unmatched conquests, but rather of fleeting triumphs overshadowed by repeated failures.

1014 A.D. – Defeat at Kashmir – After successfully capturing the territories of King Anandapala and Sukhpala, Mahmud of Ghazni’s ambitions expanded, and he set his sights on the distant goal of capturing the kingdom of Kashmir. Following the death of Lalitaditya Muktipada, the golden era of Kashmir came to an end, yet the region continued to be regarded as a crucial stronghold in the geopolitics of the area.When Mahmud advanced his army toward the Kashmir border, the reigning king, Sangramraj, did not hesitate to take a more challenging approach in defense. It is a well-documented historical fact that the Ghaznavids were unable to withstand the fierce resistance from the soldiers of Kashmir. Mahmud’s aspirations to conquer Kashmir were never realized during his lifetime. After his failure to capture the strategic Loharkot Fort, Mahmud ultimately abandoned his campaign, acknowledging his defeat and retreating from the region.

1019 A.D. – The Chandella Resistance – Staying true to the strategic approach of his Arabian predecessors, Mahmud of Ghazni did not attempt to breach a locked door a second time. Instead, he turned his attention to the western kingdoms of the Rajput clan. However, unlike his previous campaigns, the Rajput kings failed to form a united front and gradually succumbed to the pressure, one after another. Once his campaign in Rajputana concluded, Mahmud encountered the elites of Central India, who were already united under the rule of Vidyadhara Chandella. Islamic historians often emphasize how King Chandella was reportedly terrified and allegedly submitted to Mahmud. Yet, these same clerics remain silent on the critical point: why did Mahmud fail to compel King Chandella to embrace Islam? Alternative accounts present a different narrative. According to these sources, King Chandella struck the first blow by defeating and killing Mahmud’s ally. In retaliation, Mahmud assembled his forces and confronted King Chandella in the Bundelkhand hills. After the first day of battle, King Chandella strategically dispersed his army into the surrounding villages. Recognizing the threat of a potential defeat through guerrilla warfare on hostile ground, Mahmud ultimately abandoned his campaign.

1022 A.D. – Mahmud’s Broken Sword: Bharat’s Unyielding Shield – Mahmud of Ghazni’s lack of preparation to face a united Bharat army forced him into retreat against King Chandella. Three years later, driven by a desire for revenge, Mahmud assembled an even larger army and launched another attack on central India. During this campaign, he succeeded in capturing 15 different forts. However, his progress was halted at Gwalior Fort, where, despite a four-day siege, Mahmud was unable to overcome its commander, Kirtiraja. In warfare, patience and the ability to wait for the opportune moment are invaluable virtues. While the Ghaznavid forces were not lacking in power and endurance, they lacked this crucial quality. The experienced soldiers of Bharat’s kingdoms skillfully wore down the invaders by prolonging the conflict. The Ghaznavid forces, accustomed to quick, successive attacks to capture territories in rapid succession, often found themselves unable to sustain their momentum. In contrast, the defenders of Bharat employed a “one-punch” strategy—holding the enemy at bay while waiting for them to lose resolve. This method proved successful against the Ghaznavids time and again. After his failure at Gwalior, Mahmud retreated and directed his forces toward Kalinjara Fort, where King Vidyadhara Chandella himself resided. That night, the King’s commander, Arjuna, launched a surprise attack on Mahmud’s camp with a large division of soldiers and elephants. Mahmud’s army was caught off guard and could offer no effective defense. In the face of this unexpected assault, Mahmud’s forces were forced to surrender unconditionally. As part of the terms of surrender, Mahmud relinquished all the territory he had previously conquered.

1027 A.D. – Retaliation for Destruction of Somnath Temple – Mahmud of Ghazni, realizing the futility of attempting to breach the central Indian strongholds despite his overwhelming power, opted to avoid direct military confrontation. Instead, he resorted to looting and terrorizing neighboring regions. His actions escalated when he sacked the renowned Somnath temple, one of the most significant centers of Hinduism at the time. The temple was not just a religious monument but a symbol of cultural unity, with kings from across Bharat, regardless of political rivalries, offering donations and support. An essential and remarkable aspect of Indian warfare was the respect for innocent civilians, as well as cultural and religious sites, which were typically spared from conflict. Unfortunately, Mahmud failed to comprehend this ethos and, in a violent display of disregard, destroyed the Somnath temple, killing thousands of innocent devotees within its precincts. The destruction of Somnath ignited the fury of King Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty. Enraged by the sacrilege, he rallied a vast coalition of Indian kings and marched towards the temple. Upon hearing of this unified counterattack, Mahmud was shaken to his core and, in an attempt to avoid facing the wrath of this formidable alliance, fled for his life. To escape the approaching army, he chose a treacherous route through the deserts. The harsh conditions took a devastating toll on his forces, with many soldiers and animals succumbing to the scarcity of food and water. Mainstream history rarely mentions that Mahmud of Ghazni preferred the perilous desert over confronting King Bhoja’s united army. Fed up with his incessant attacks, the kings of Bharat had finally united to expel the Ghaznavids from the subcontinent. With a formidable army assembled for his next invasion, the sheer force of the united Indian front was enough to quash Mahmud’s resolve. Fearing inevitable defeat, Mahmud never returned to Bharat.

1031 A.D. – Battle of Bahraich – Masud, the nephew of Mahmud of Ghazni, sought to carve an indelible mark in history by expanding the Caliphate, dreaming of covering the sacred lands of the Ganges plain. Driven by the same relentless ambition that had fueled his ancestors, he marched towards India with an immense army of over 120,000 soldiers, bolstered by the powerful Turkic forces. However, after his uncle’s retreat, the Ghaznavid control over the banks of the Sindhu (Indus) was already beginning to fade. Masud’s first objective was to restore that lost foothold, which he accomplished. But his true ambition lay in realizing what his uncle had failed to achieve—forcing the Islamization of the central Indian region. What he did not foresee, however, was the storm that awaited him. Masud’s invasion would go down as a defining chapter in Bharat’s history, not just because of his military might but because it ignited the unlikeliest of alliances. In the absence of a single authoritative power, a grand military confederation—unprecedented in scale—was formed, uniting the hearts of 17 Indian kings. They came together not just to defend their land, but to protect their culture, their very identity. Among these valiant rulers were King Raib, King Saib, King Arjun, King Bheekhan, King Kanak, King Kalyan, King Makaru, King Savaru, King Aran, King Birbal, King Jaypal, King Shreepal, King Harpal, King Hakru, King Prabhu, King Deo Narayan, and King Narsinha. At the forefront of this grand coalition was King Bhoja, who contributed the lion’s share of his troops and commanded one of the alliance’s key flanks. Masud set up his forward base of operations in Satrikh, meticulously preparing his strategy. Regiments were placed at critical strategic points, and a single, well-coordinated plan was set in motion. When the time was right, King Rajbhar Suhaldev, the head of the Bharat confederation, ignited a deadly and organized ambush. The numerical superiority of the Turk-Ghaznavid forces, though formidable, proved useless against the calculated brilliance of the alliance’s assault. Simultaneously, auxiliary forces of the Bharat army launched attacks on six secondary bases of Masud’s army, ensuring that no reinforcements could reach him. There was no escape route. No way to shift the battleground. No way to regroup. In the battle that ensued, now famously known as the Battle of Bahraich, Masud’s entire force was decimated. Every single soldier in his camp perished. Masud himself was captured and beheaded, with no prisoners taken and no mercy shown to the Turkic forces. The annihilation of the imperial Turk army at Bahraich sent shockwaves across the entire region. As news spread, the other Bharat kings—many of whom had previously been in peace treaties with the Turks—seized the moment. They too turned against the remnants of the Ghaznavid forces, and within the span of a few short months, Islamic presence in Bharat was reduced to nothing. Adding to this monumental victory, King Gangadev of Kanauj had also triumphed over the Ghaznavid army during their retreat from Varanasi. This series of defeats proved to be a crushing blow to the Caliphate, which would take another 160 years to muster an army capable of launching another invasion of Bharat.

Everything is Fair in…

After the failures of the Arabs and the Ghaznavids, it was the Turks who took up the banner of the Islamic Caliphate and ventured across the Hindukush into Bharat. Their initial success in India, though significant, is often misrepresented as a grand conquest. In truth, their triumphs were largely owed to the overconfidence of one Hindu king—Prithviraj Chauhan. At a pivotal moment in history, Prithviraj made the crucial mistake of refusing to ally with the Chalukyas during the Turks’ initial invasion. Had he done so, the already weakened Turkish forces would have been utterly crushed, and they would never have had the chance to regroup and retaliate. But Prithviraj’s pride blinded him, and he allowed the Turks to retreat unharmed after their defeat in the first Battle of Tarain. His arrogance, coupled with outdated military ethics, proved to be his downfall. The notion of not pursuing a retreating enemy—a lesson long learned by his predecessors—came back to haunt him. The Turks, given the opportunity to rebuild, returned stronger, armed with knowledge of Prithviraj’s strengths and weaknesses. In the second battle, Prithviraj made yet another critical error. Despite his earlier defeat, he did not concentrate all his forces against the Turks, leaving a portion of his army engaged along the eastern borders against the Pala Kingdom. Some accounts suggest that another skirmish took place between these two battles, where once again, Prithviraj failed to deal the final blow to his enemies. This temporary lapse in Rajput power opened the floodgates for the Turks to breach the Ganges Plain. However, despite their initial victories, the Turkish presence in Bharat was limited to the cities of Delhi and Bengal. Modern history often attempts to paint the Turks as rulers of all of Northern and Central India, yet this portrayal is far from the truth. The reality was that the Turks were constantly embroiled in battles with various kingdoms across Northern, Eastern, and Central India. Their empire, if it could be called that, never extended beyond a regional power in Bharat. Their ambition faltered, their territory remained fractured, and they never managed to establish true control over the vast expanse of India.

1180 A.D. – The Unseen Defeat: Ghori’s Retreat Before Queen Nayaki Devi – Before his infamous encounter with Prithviraj Chauhan, one lesser-known but significant defeat of the Turkic forces occurred at the hands of the Chalukya queen, Nayaki Devi. When Ghori first entered Bharat, he deliberately avoided engaging with the Rajputs and instead turned his attention to the Deccan, where the once-mighty Chalukya dynasty had weakened. By this time, the official ruler of the Chalukyas was a young teenager, with his mother, Nayaki Devi, wielding real power behind the throne. Ghori, misjudging the strength of a woman ruler, hastily decided to confront the Chalukyas, assuming their leadership would be vulnerable. The rulers of mainland Bharat at this time lacked the political acumen seen in previous periods, such as during the Arab and Ghaznavid invasions. Many of Nayaki Devi’s diplomatic missions had failed, but despite this, the queen demonstrated that preparation and strategy were paramount in warfare. She carefully selected the terrain, which was unfamiliar to Ghori’s forces, giving the Chalukyas a significant advantage. The strategic counter-offensive she orchestrated caught the Islamic forces completely off-guard. Faced with imminent defeat and destruction, Ghori had no choice but to flee, escaping with only a handful of bodyguards who managed to survive. This remarkable victory of a Hindu queen over the mighty Turkic forces was celebrated in Persian, Hindu, and Jain chronicles with great dignity and pride. Notably, Ghori never attempted to invade the Deccan again during his lifetime.

1191 A.D. – The Blunder of Prithviraj Chauhan: A Missed Opportunity – After narrowly surviving a near-death experience, Ghori sought to challenge the Rajputs. Among the most prominent Rajput rulers of the time was Prithviraj Chauhan. The lack of political foresight among certain rulers becomes evident when the ruler of Kannauj refused to form an alliance with Prithviraj due to their longstanding rivalry. Unfortunately, this was not an isolated case. Despite these setbacks, Prithviraj succeeded in uniting several smaller states, presenting a unified front against the common enemy. Even with many military strongholds remaining neutral, the Turkic army was no match for the formidable forces of Prithviraj. The Islamic troops began to retreat, and Ghori himself was wounded, coming close to capture. However, he was rescued from the battlefield by one of his soldiers. Yet, the most significant blunder in Indian history occurred when Prithviraj allowed the Turkic forces to withdraw unscathed, failing to seize their territory or resources.

1192 A.D. – One year following his initial defeat, Muhammad Ghori returned. Prithviraj Chauhan, seemingly overconfident, had deployed a significant portion of his forces, including two of his principal generals, to the eastern frontiers to address the Pala dynasty. This strategic decision left Prithviraj weakened and isolated, contributing to his subsequent defeat. He was captured and executed. However, alternative historical accounts present a different narrative. These sources suggest that, consistent with the practices of some Islamic rulers of the period, Prithviraj was subjected to humiliation and mistreatment. He was reportedly forced to perform in Ghori’s court. Recognizing Prithviraj’s renowned archery skills, particularly his ability to target objects based on sound, Ghori allegedly had him blinded. Subsequently, in a public display, Prithviraj was ordered to shoot an animal. Exploiting the enforced silence of the arena, Prithviraj, instead of focusing on the animal’s sound, concentrated on Ghori’s voice. When the order to shoot was given, Prithviraj directed his arrow at Ghori, resulting in his immediate death. Prithviraj Chauhan is then said to have calmly accepted his own execution.

1194 A.D. – Prithviraj Chauhan’s defeat was a profound and unexpected blow to Bharat’s civilization, leaving the nation struggling to recover and regroup. However, the resolve of its leaders was soon tested, with the warrior at the forefront of the counter-offensive being Kuram Devi—daughter of the legendary Nayaki Devi (who had previously defeated Ghori) and queen consort of Samar Singh, a direct descendant of Bappa Rawal. Much like her mother, Kuram Devi was an innate leader. Following Samar Singh’s death in battle against Ghori, Kuram Devi ascended the throne. She focused on expelling the invaders from Bharat’s soil, taking charge of the army and leading from the front on horseback. Her forces engaged the Islamic establishment near the historic Amber Fort, employing a tactic of rapid, lightning-fast strikes. Kuram Devi’s strategy took the Caliphate army by surprise, and she advanced directly toward Qutubuddin himself. Unfamiliar with such aggressive warfare, the Islamic forces were unable to counter her movements. In a dramatic confrontation, Qutubuddin was forced into a duel with Kuram Devi. Kuram Devi delivered a decisive blow, striking her sword deep into his chest. Believing Qutubuddin to be dead, the Islamic forces fled the battlefield, retreating with his presumed corpse. This victory cemented Kuram Devi’s success in her mission. However, it was later revealed that Qutubuddin had not perished from the injury and returned to the battlefield at a later period. Kuram Devi’s son, who sought to continue her legacy, was unable to replicate her success and lost the battle. Nevertheless, Qutubuddin’s life was cut short shortly thereafter. According to legend, he fell from his horse and succumbed to his injuries. Some tales suggest that a royal horse, loyal to Kuram Devi’s son, refused to allow Qutubuddin to mount and, in doing so, contributed to his demise. The true cause of Qutubuddin’s death remains uncertain, adding an air of mystery to the events surrounding his final days.

1206 A.D. – The Defeat of Bakhtiar Khilji in Assam – Bakhtiar Khilji, the notorious figure responsible for the destruction of Nalanda, served as the right-hand man to Qutubuddin. Following the conquest of present-day Bengal, his next target was Assam, where King Prithu reigned. Khilji, leading a cavalry of 12,000, advanced into the plains of Kamarupa with the intent of capturing the strategic Assam fortress ahead of him. However, he soon found himself compelled to adopt a defensive stance, as the local forces mounted a surprisingly strong and resilient resistance. This level of opposition was unexpected by Khilji, who had anticipated an easier conquest. Despite this, he managed to hold his position. While the Assamese army kept the Caliphate forces occupied at the border, another flank of Assamese reinforcements arrived, further complicating Khilji’s efforts. Realizing that the conquest of Assam had become an insurmountable challenge, Khilji ultimately ordered a retreat. However, the lack of battle strategy on the part of the Caliphate became evident when their supply lines were severed, and their retreat routes were blocked. The Islamic forces were decimated in a brutal massacre as they attempted to flee. After a significant portion of Khilji’s troops had been destroyed, the remnants of his army found themselves trapped on the riverside. The bridges were broken, and it became clear that the Kingdom of Assam had meticulously planned the destruction of the invaders. In a final attempt to protect themselves, the Islamic forces resorted to their infamous tactic of using Hindu religious sites as shields. A portion of Khilji’s remaining forces sought refuge in a temple. However, King Prithu proved to be far wiser than previous adversaries such as the kings of Kabul and Zabul. Without hesitation, he laid siege to the temple, showing no mercy. In a desperate bid for survival, the Turks jumped into the nearby river, hoping to escape. However, the current carried almost the entire army away, and only a handful of survivors managed to make it back to their base. Following this disastrous defeat, Khilji did not live much longer.

1244 A.D. – The Kalinga Triumph – The eastern base of the Turk forces was established in Bengal, and after their disastrous expedition to Assam, they shifted their focus to fortifying their settlement in Bengal. However, they were caught off guard by a determined counteroffensive from another Bharat kingdom. King Narasimhadev I of Kalinga, closely monitoring Turk activities, recognized their broader ambition to incorporate Bharat into the Caliphate Empire. With the Rajputs’ fall, there were no major northern powers strong enough to challenge the Turks at that time. Narasimhadev I, unwilling to wait for the Turks to strike first, decided to take the fight directly to the enemy. Understanding that a defensive posture would not diminish the growing Muslim threat over time, Narasimhadev’s military generals determined that the best defense was a strong offense. The southern part of Islamic Bengal was swiftly overrun by the first wave of Kalinga forces, and Narasimhadev I laid siege to the strategically significant fort of Lakhnauti, which served as a critical corridor for the Delhi Sultanate, connecting its eastern provinces to other Turk forces in Bharat. When the Turks retaliated, the Kalinga forces strategically withdrew to modern-day Contai. The Caliphate army, under the false impression that they had successfully driven the Kalinga forces out of their territory, fell into a trap. At the frontier of Katasin (Contai), the Kalinga forces had already dug trenches and built military bunkers. In a calculated move, Narasimhadev I lured the Turks into a vulnerable position by sending a portion of his forces back toward Kalinga, ensuring the retreat was visible to the enemy. Believing they had won the battle, the Turks relaxed and began to settle for their meals. At that moment, the Kalinga forces emerged from their hidden positions, catching the Turks off guard. Surrounded on all sides, the unprepared Turk soldiers had no opportunity to arm themselves. The brutality of the battle is recorded in the inscription at the Ananta Vasudeva temple, which notes that “the water of the Ganges was blackened by the blood of Turk soldiers.” Kalinga forces later returned to besiege the fort of Lakhnauti. This time, the battle took place on open ground. The Turks, unable to match the strength and strategy of Kalinga forces, called for reinforcements from Delhi. While the exact outcome upon the arrival of backup forces is unclear, it is evident that the Turks suffered heavy losses, marking a significant defeat. It is said that the Kalinga forces pushed the Turks all the way to the banks of the Padma River. This aggressive stance by Kalinga proved effective, as there is no record of any Islamic invasion of Kalinga territory for nearly a century thereafter.

1248 A.D. – 1253 A.D. – The historical narrative often focuses on a single battle between the Turks and the Rajputs, where Ghori managed to breach Prithviraj Chauhan’s defenses. However, the absence of further mention of the Rajputs gives the misleading impression that they surrendered to the Turk Empire following the Second Battle of Tarain. This, however, is far from the truth. The series of battles against invaders, which began with Kuram Devi, continued until the British takeover. Whenever a particular Rajput province fell to the Turk forces, other Rajput territories continued the resistance. Had there been greater unity among the Rajput clans, they could have emerged as a more powerful and dominant force across northern and western Bharat. The ongoing border conflicts between the Rajputs and the Turks never ceased. The battles were so intense that the Turk Empire was consistently forced to dedicate a substantial portion of their military resources to confront the Rajputs. In 1236, during the reign of the often-discussed Razia (or Rizia), the Rajputs regained control of the strategically important fort of Ranthambhore. The Turks made relentless efforts to re-establish their control over the region, but even after a decade, they had little success. Within a span of just five years, King Bhagabata Chauhan successfully repelled at least two major invasions, further demonstrating the resilience and resistance of the Rajputs.

1303 A.D. – Real Story of Queen Padmavati – It is true that the Turks were the first foreign forces to successfully penetrate Bharat. However, their initial triumph was short-lived as they quickly realized that leaders such as Nayaki Devi and Prithviraj Chauhan were merely the tip of the iceberg. Their fears were confirmed when it became clear that it would be impossible for any foreign force to dominate the entire subcontinent. While the Turks managed to take advantage of Prithviraj Chauhan’s pride and subdued most of the Ganges plains, the intensity and frequency of retaliations from indigenous kingdoms only grew stronger. The Turk army in the subcontinent was never able to enjoy a single day of respite from the battlefield. On the western front, the Rajputs were relentless in their efforts. In one notable instance, Alauddin Khilji deceitfully summoned the king of Mewar, Rana Ratan Singh, under the pretense of a diplomatic discussion. However, upon his arrival, Khilji captured him and demanded a ransom, including women, from the Rajputs. (The widely circulated tale of Alauddin Khilji requesting to see Queen Padmini and the Rajputs allegedly allowing him to view her through a mirror is a fabrication, originating from the poem Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi.) In response, the Rajputs agreed to send their women in palanquins as a gesture of compliance. When the palanquins arrived, an unexpected turn of events unfolded. Rajput warriors, disguised in female attire, emerged from within. The Rajputs turned the tables on the Turks, employing the same treachery they had been subjected to. Khilji’s regiment was ambushed and decimated, and Rana Ratan Singh was freed. It is said that Khilji was allowed to return, but only after he was forced to beg for mercy, naked, before Queen Padmini. A similar account of this event is also recounted in one of Rabindranath Tagore’s poems.

1325 A.D. – 1328 A.D. – The Deccan Diaries – The legendary Chalukyas stood as a formidable barrier against Islamic invaders in the Deccan for nearly 600 years. However, by the 12th century, their power began to gradually wane. This weakening of their influence created a power vacuum in southern Bharat, which allowed the Turks to flood into the region. The smaller states of the south, often lacking the foresight to unite in resistance, became easy targets. History books often highlight how quickly the Turk Sultanate was able to subdue the Hoysalas and Kakatiyas. However, they fail to mention an important detail: the Sultanate’s victory was limited to a single battle. The true conflict began afterwards, as the indigenous kingdoms began to realize the looming threat of the Turk Empire and decided to join forces. What makes this period remarkable is the fact that the smaller kingdoms of Bharat, rather than submitting to the Turk Empire’s power and paying tribute for survival, chose to trade blows — even when doing so was far riskier. This “Battle for Honour” was not an isolated event; it is a recurring theme in Bharat’s history, where pride and resistance to foreign domination often took precedence over mere survival. The tide of resistance began within two years of the Caliphate’s temporary success. Pralaya Verma Reddy, a lesser-known king, took the first steps in challenging the invaders. He formed an alliance with Pralaya Nayaka, a successor of the Hoysala dynasty. Their combined forces launched an expedition that swiftly restored control over the eastern coastal region, modern-day Andhra, marking the beginning of a broader resistance against the Turk Empire.

1329 A.D. – Fortresses of Resilience: The Strategic Defense – The indomitable resurgence of Bharat’s forces along the Eastern Ghats quickly spread to the western shores. At the forefront of this resistance was Veera Ballabha III, a brilliant strategist who recognized that another wave of Islamic invasions was inevitable. With keen foresight, he identified critical locations for establishing defensive fortifications. Facing threats from two fronts—the Delhi Sultanate in the north and the Madurai Sultanate in the south—Veera Ballabha III appointed two of his most capable generals, Harihara and Bukka (the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire), to secure the northern border. He personally focused on fortifying the southern frontier. As part of his preparation for the forthcoming conflict, Veera Ballabha III established three capitals within his kingdom: Dwarasamudra, Hosapattana, and Thirubantamalai. The strategic positioning of Thirubantamalai, in particular, was crucial, as it served as a key link between the two sultanates. This well-planned defensive infrastructure effectively delayed Islamic expansion for approximately 15 years.

1331 A.D. – 1333 A.D. – Swift Swords – In the grand tapestry of Bharat’s resistance, the Chalukyas, under the indomitable leadership of King Somdeva, stood tall as a beacon of defiance against the tide of Islamic invaders. This time, the call to arms united four of the greatest warrior clans of the southern region—the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Kakatiyas, and the Reddis — forming an alliance that would rewrite the course of history. With unmatched vision and valor, King Somdeva launched a relentless military offensive against the Islamic forces. His campaign was nothing short of a masterstroke, a lightning-fast series of strikes that brought Islamic power in southern Bharat to its knees in a single, thunderous sweep. Within weeks, the Rayalaseema region was freed, and a bold assault on Satanikota obliterated the Turk garrison stationed there. Somdeva, showing unparalleled strategic brilliance, severed the supply lines of the Turk army in Kurnool, leaving them vulnerable and isolated. During this time, Tuglaq was mired in conflict with northern Bharat forces, and the southern Sultanate found itself powerless to counter the rising tide of Bharat’s unity and might. One by one, the Turk-occupied forts in the Doab region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers fell like dominoes, unable to resist the onslaught. The stronghold of Raichur, though fiercely contested, eventually succumbed to the fury of Somdeva’s forces in a decisive and brutal battle. It is said that the decapitated head of the Turk governor was offered as a sacrifice in a temple, a symbol of the resounding victory. On his way back to Kurnool, Somdeva’s army encountered the main force of the Madurai Sultanate. But the allied forces, strategically positioned, encircled them from all sides. The result was inevitable—the entire Islamic force of the southern Sultanate was annihilated in this glorious campaign, securing the southern frontier of Bharat and cementing King Somdeva’s place in the annals of history as a hero of unparalleled courage and wisdom.

1333 A.D. – Mountain’s Wrath – Amid the long list of struggles faced by Islamic invaders against the Rajputs, one thrilling victory often fades into obscurity—a victory so remarkable, it still echoes through the corridors of history. During the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the Caliphate sought to expand its dominion through the northern regions of Bharat. At the foothills of the mighty Himalayas, lay a relatively small yet fiercely powerful kingdom—The Katoch. The Katoch kingdom, whose rulers had governed the region of Kangra since the times of the Mahabharata (Trigarta), was a force to be reckoned with. Tughlaq, intent on claiming victory over China with his massive 100,000-strong army, underestimated the fierce resistance posed by this unyielding kingdom. What he failed to realize was the crucial role geography would play in determining the outcome of the battle. Tughlaq’s colossal army, though formidable, was ill-prepared for the steep, treacherous terrain of the Himalayas, where the freezing temperatures and narrow passes provided the perfect advantage for the Katoch forces. Speed, agility, and precision—qualities that the Katoch army wielded with deadly skill—became their weapons of choice. Tughlaq’s unwieldy forces, unable to maneuver in the mountains, found themselves trapped in a relentless series of attacks from the nimble and strategic Katoch warriors. The result was nothing short of a massacre. The Katoch kingdom, vastly outnumbered, not only held their ground but annihilated an enemy that was at least ten times their size. The battle was so one-sided, so astonishing, that only eleven members of Tughlaq’s army managed to stagger back from the deadly heights of the Himalayas. The Katoch victory was a staggering blow to the might of the Caliphate, and the invaders were left in shambles, their dreams of conquest shattered by the unforgiving power of Bharat’s rugged terrain and indomitable warriors.

1335 A.D. – The dual defeats in both northern and southern Bharat had left Tuglaq desperate, his resolve to restore the Caliphate’s control over the entire Deccan growing stronger with each passing day. In his desperation, he consolidated his entire army in his secondary capital, Daulatabad. However, the Bharat alliance chose not to engage in a direct military conflict. Instead, they focused on laying the groundwork for reclaiming the lost territories, with the most significant obstacle being the presence of the royal Turk army in the plateaus. It was here that the military ingenuity of Bharat’s strategists came to the forefront. In a remarkable display of tactical brilliance, the Bharat alliance deployed bio-warfare, effectively decimating the royal Turk army. This unprecedented move forced Tuglaq to retreat, leaving the region free from Islamic forces. The absence of the Caliphate’s military presence not only weakened their influence in the area but also restored stability to the region for an extended period. This strategic victory was crucial in strengthening Bharat’s resistance and ensuring they were prepared for any future invasions. Following this phase, the last Islamic stronghold in southern Bharat, Warangal, was recaptured by indigenous rulers, and the Reddi Kingdom was reinstated, marking a significant turning point in the fight for Bharat’s sovereignty.

1333 A.D. – 1336 A.D. – Pride of Delhi Sultanate avenged to Dust – The legendary Rajputs are often subjected to criticism for being unable to win a single battle, a misconception fueled by the distorted portrayal of Rajputs by mainstream historians. Much of this misrepresentation stems from the depiction of Rajput warriors in entertainment media—novels, movies, and theater—which often reduce them to a stereotyped, overly-ethical, idealized tragic hero. This portrayal aligns most closely with the personality of Prithviraj Chauhan, thus positioning him as the standardized representation of the entire Rajput clan. However, a closer examination of historical records reveals that such diplomatic and strategic blunders, like those made by Prithviraj Chauhan, were rare among Rajput kings. In fact, Rajputs were often among the most formidable warrior clans in the world. Even excluding their bravery and valor, Rajput kingdoms were equal to their contemporaries in terms of military prowess and strategy. Throughout medieval Bharat, there are numerous instances where Rajput kingdoms successfully resisted Islamic rulers against all odds. While Prithviraj Chauhan’s defeat did, indeed, serve as a boost to the Caliphate, it is important to note that many Rajput warriors, undeterred by this loss, continued their efforts to drive back the invaders. One such lesser-known yet courageous Rajput was Rana Hammir, who managed to challenge the Turk base in the subcontinent. From a young age, Rana Hammir dedicated himself to this mission, gradually building a united force. Sensing the rising threat, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq moved against him with an overwhelming army. Even though Rana Hammir was outnumbered four to one, he adhered to a doctrine of warfare that, had his ancestors embraced it, might have prevented the Caliphate’s return to Bharat. The doctrine, famously stating that “the objective of war is not to die for your country, but to make the other man die for his,” was exemplified by Rana Hammir’s surprise attack. In a bold and daring maneuver, Rana Hammir launched a midnight assault on the Turk army’s base camp, transforming it into a slaughterhouse. The Bharat forces emerged victorious in this battle. However, the most significant historical outcome occurred that night—Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the ruler of the Turk empire, became a prisoner of Rana Hammir. Astonishingly, Rana Hammir chose not to execute him but to release him after a short imprisonment. This act had far-reaching consequences, leading to the loss of dignity and self-esteem for the Islamic powers in Bharat. While Islamic territories persisted sporadically, the absence of any central, formidable Caliphate force became evident, signaling a shift in the power dynamics of the region.

1336 A.D. – Rise of Vijayanagar– After Rana Hammir’s decisive victory over the Turk Empire, Islam began its steady decline on the Bharat mainland. The Rajputs, emboldened by their success, reasserted their dominance in northern Bharat. Although regional Turk garrisons managed to cling to some semblance of existence, they lost all their previous influence. In the east, the Kalinga and Assamese empires emerged as sovereign powers, resisting Islamic rule and asserting their own strength. In southern Bharat, a united front formed by the Munsuris, Reddis, Chalukyas, and Kakatiyas led to the rise of native forces. This period in Indian history stands as a remarkable chapter, as the various native kingdoms of the Deccan, once fractured, eventually gave way to the rise of a unified empire—the Vijayanagara Empire. What set Vijayanagara apart was its ability to integrate numerous native Bharat clans, coming together to stand firm against invaders. The significance of the rise of Vijayanagara lies not just in its military success but in its long-term vision. Unlike the temporary coalitions formed during battles like those at Rajasthan or Bahraich, Vijayanagara was founded on a clear, enduring goal: unity and resistance against foreign domination. It took centuries, following the golden eras of the Mauryas and Guptas, for Bharat to witness another attempt at unification—and this time, it was not just a fleeting moment, but a lasting force that reshaped the political landscape.

1346 A.D. – 1356 A.D. – Although the southern Bharat alliance had successfully pushed back the spread of Islam in the Deccan, they made a critical error—after defeating the Madurai Sultanate, they failed to completely eradicate it. As a result, after their departure, Islamic forces gradually began to regain a foothold in the region. The early years of the Vijayanagara kings were spent consolidating the indigenous powers of southern Bharat under one unified banner. Once the foundation of the future empire was solidified, King Harihara I took it upon himself to finish what had been started—to wipe out the last remaining Islamic presence in Southern Bharat. Though his campaign achieved undeniable success, the job was far from finished. Islamic forces, though weakened, were not entirely uprooted, and the struggle for survival and dominance continued.

1356 A.D. – 1361 A.D. – Another Islamic threat emerged along the north-western regions of the Deccan. The Bahmanis, despite being a separate state, coordinated their efforts with the Madurai Sultanate to establish Caliphate power in the area. To counter this growing threat, the Vijayanagara kings formed an alliance with the Nayakas on the Eastern shore. In 1356-1357, the Bahmani forces launched a major invasion, which was successfully repelled by the Vijayanagara Empire. Despite the Bahmani treasury being nearly depleted due to continuous conflicts, they made one last attempt to attack Vijayanagara in 1361. The Bahmanis entered into a non-aggression pact with Islamic powers in northern Bharat and focused all their forces on Vijayanagara. In response, the alliance between Bukka I and Kapaya Nayaka strategically opened two fronts against the Bahmanis. The battle ended in a decisive victory for the Bharat alliance. The Bahmanis were forced to agree to all the terms imposed upon them to avoid further counter-attacks. This peace treaty enabled Vijayanagara to expand its borders and solidify its position in the region.

1370 A.D. – 1378 A.D. – The End of Madurai Sultanate – The successive kings of Vijayanagara, particularly Bukka I, ensured that the mistakes of the past were not repeated by leaving a battered enemy unchecked. Instead, he resumed military action against the Madurai Sultanate, delegating this task to his son, Kampana. In 1370, the Vijayanagara army met their adversaries at Samayavaram, securing an easy victory. This triumph was followed by another at Kannaur-Kuppam. In 1371, a decisive conflict near Madurai led to the death of the Madurai Sultan. However, despite this significant loss, the Sultan’s successors continued to resist. Undeterred, the Vijayanagara forces maintained their pressure on the Islamic territories. Through a gradual yet consistent campaign of annexation, Vijayanagara officially declared the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate in 1378.

1398 A.D. – The End of Taimur-Len and his Holy War – The medieval history of Asia is often dominated by the tyrannical figure of Taimur Len, whose name struck fear into the hearts of nations across Asia, Africa, and Europe. His brutality and conquests are etched deeply in history, yet one of his most catastrophic failures—the disaster he faced during his campaign in Bharat—remains largely overlooked. After an easy victory over the weak Islamic ruler of Delhi, Taimur unleashed a horrifying massacre, claiming over 100,000 lives. However, in his arrogance and disdain, he underestimated the might of the native warriors of Bharat. The ruthless killing of innocent civilians ignited a fire that would soon spread across the land. Nearly four centuries after the glorious victory at the Battle of Bahraich, a unified resistance rose under the leadership of Jograj Singh Pawar. While Taimur reveled in his demonic bloodshed in Delhi, the Bharat alliance struck first with a preemptive attack. Nearly 9,000 of Taimur’s soldiers were slain, their bodies swept away by the Yamuna River. Shocked but undeterred, Taimur regrouped and marched toward Meerut with a massive army of 100,000 men. Yet, he faced a relentless resistance: direct battles by day, guerrilla attacks by night, and constant sieges on his supply lines. At Jawalpur (modern-day), a regiment of the Bharat alliance, led by Harbir Singh Gulia, launched a decisive attack. The result was the annihilation of 5,000 of Taimur’s cavalry, and Taimur himself was severely wounded. Taimur’s forces continued to take heavy losses as they advanced toward the Ganges. In a fierce guerrilla assault in the jungle near Haridwar, another 2,000 of his soldiers were destroyed. But the worst was yet to come. At the banks of the Ganges, Taimur faced a battle so savage that it shattered his spirit. The bloodshed was so intense that even Taimur, a conqueror known for his cruelty, could not endure the horrors of war. Unable to withstand the onslaught, Taimur lost his stomach to continue. Even as he began his retreat, the Bharat army pursued him relentlessly, and by the end of the campaign, two-thirds of his army—around 160,000 men—had been destroyed. Thus began the unraveling of Taimur Lenk’s so-called ‘Holy Empire,’ as his once-feared forces were decimated in the heart of Bharat.

1414 A.D. – Bengal was under islamic rule for almost a long 200 years. Gradually, to deal with native rulers of surrounding area, islamic kings started appointing local Hindus in the administration. One such person, Raja Ganesha, a direct descendant of the Deva dynasty of Bengal, was working behind the scenes restlessly to manipulate internal affairs of Bengal sultanate. Gradually, as mentioned with utmost hatred in islamic accounts, Ganesha brought the treasury under his control and then recaptured the throne of Bengal. It appears that he killed the sultan of Bengal, Shihabuddin. Islamic lobby in Bengal called for backup to the sultan of Jaunpur, Ibrahim Shah. It is not clear what was the outcome of Ibrahim’s battle against Ganesha. Some accounts mention a straightaway defeat for Ibrahim. Some mention that king Ganesha formed an alliance with kingdom of Mithila (king Sivasimha). Whatever may the details be, the battle resulted in a victory in favor of King Ganesha, because otherwise islamic dominion would have been returned there. Though king Ganesha’s rule lasted only for 3-4 years, this phase is critical in Bharat history because it was the first instance of Hindu uprising in Bengal deltas.

1437 A.D. – 1446 A.D. – After crushing defeat in hands of Rana Hammir, Turk establishment in Bharat was divided into local territories. Each one of them was too busy to maintain their existence against neighboring native Bharat states. Just like how southern sultanates were struggling against Vijayanagar or Eastern sultanates were under threat of Kalinga, western sultanates also had to deal with the Rajputs. Ruler of one such islamic state, Mandavgad (or Mandu) went on to interfere into internal affairs of Rajputs. As a result, Rana Kumbha declared war against him. In spite of repeated appeal, none of bordering sultanates agreed to help him against frightening force of Rana Kumbha. The armies met at Mandavgad. After a severe engagement, the Sultanate army could not withstand any longer and started to flee from battleground. Sultan himself fled to safe refuge of his fort of Mandu. Rana’s army followed up and laid siege to Mandu. Sultan was held captive and brought back to Chittor. Mandavgad sultanate again came back 5 years later and met with Rana Kumbha in Mandalgarh. After a fierce battle, again sultanate had to retreat. Again in 1446 A.D., the sultanate attacked Rana Kumbha’s territory, but the result was still the same. Mandavgad sultanate was left powerless after all these series of bloody battles.

1447 A.D. – King Ganesha’s short term rule saw an islamic retreat in Bengal. But after his death, islamic lobby managed to retake the hold of the throne with the use of treachery and conversion. Unfortunately for them, they were restricted by boundaries of two very powerful Bharat kingdoms in East and South. In the East there was the powerful armies of Assam, in South, there was Kalinga. When king Kapilendra Deva became the ruler of Kalinga in 1435, the first thing he focused on was reinforcing his military. Sultanate of Bengal saw a window of attack against Kalinga when Kapilendra Deva was busy against Reddi-s. Upon receiving the news of islamic threat on northern border, Kapilendra Deva immediately ordered a ceasefire on southern front and returned to take care of islamists. The battle that ensued proved to be too fatal for Bengal sultanate. Kapilendra Deva managed to capture up to Gauda region.

1455 A.D. – 1456 A.D. – After demolishing Mandavgad sultanate, Rana Kumbha turned towards Nagaur sultanate. Death of then ruler of Nagaur created a temporary vacancy and Rana Kumbha quickly grabbed this opportunity to make a move. With a delicate combination of power and diplomacy, he managed to gain control over the throne of Nagaur. However, his stooge later turned against him. Rana Kumbha took no chance and stormed Nagaur. It took no time for annexation of Nagaur. An ally of Nagaur, Gujrat sultanate appeared to take back the territory. Rana Kumbha drew the enemy in, to his home-ground and inflicted a disastrous damage. Gujrat sultanate army was almost annihilated.

1458 A.D. – 1459 A.D. – Just like last couple of decades, this time period also saw comeback of Bharat kingdoms against Turk power throughout Bharat landmass – Vijayanagar in South, Rajputs in West and Kalinga in East. Around 1458, Bahmani sultanate initiated an attempt of annexation of Deverkonda. Deverkonda ruler was aware of imminent defeat and called for help to Kapilendra Deva of Kalinga. Kalinga kingdom immediately came to their aid and stood firm against Bahmani army. Bahmani troops did not have any chance against the joint forces, they had to retreat.

1462 A.D. – 1463 A.D. – We have heard much about Vijayanagar vs Bahmani conflicts. But very few of us are actually aware of campaigns against Bahmanis carried out by invincible Kapilendra Deva. Bahmani started to feel the heat four years after the defeat against allied force of Kalinga and Deverkonda. Kapilendra Deva, aided by Bellama chiefs, assembled a huge and powerful army to invade the islamic stronghold in Deccans. Bahmani was unable to make any resistance. Just when Bahmani sultanate was on the verge of submission, neighboring sultanate of Jaunpur attacked Kalinga from north. Kapilendra Deva had to step back temporarily to deal with that new threat. Jaunpur was absolutely of no match against that Bharat powerhouse. Arab chronicler, Ferishta tries very hard to make an impossible claim that Kapilendra Deva had to pay a ransom against Bahmani but it does not make any sense when validated against reality. Not only that, successive invasion from Kalinga resulted in fall of Bidar, then capital of Bahmani. This battle against Kalinga weakened Bahmani so much that few years later, it ceased to exist anymore.

1492 A.D. – After the fall of Tuglaq dynasty, it was getting clearer day by day that elimination of Turk power in Bharat was just a matter of time. Regional islamic states were struggling against Bharat kingdoms. Being unable to get an upper-hand on military power of Bharat kings, Turks tried to create imbalance on sociological stability. Frequent attacks on innocent civilians became a common thing. Destruction of records prohibits us from retrieving exact details of all those events. Obviously, when our biased history successfully distorts the details of major battles, all those minor events are expected to be omitted. One such forgotten hero appears to be Rao Satal. In order to save hundreds of women from Turk army, Rao Satal launched a campaign quickly. Turk battalion was destroyed. Although Rao Satal himself could not recover from his wounds.

1509 A.D. – 1511 A.D. – The Caliphate’s attempts to re-establish islamic supremacy in the Deccan were continuously being challenged mostly because of presence of two major Bharat powers – Kalinga and Vijayanagar. After the decisive defeat against Kapilendra Deva, we do not see any significant Bahmani effort against Kalinga. Instead they introduced frequent plundering and looting of provinces within Vijayanagar empire. During this period, throne of Vijayanagar was assumed by Krishnadevaraya, who is considered as greatest ruler of that empire. One very important trait possessed by him, along with many others, was his military excellence. Extent of his military success can only be compared with one of his contemporaries, the invincible Kapilendra Deva. Krishnadevaraya’s first job what he did after ascending the throne, was to put an end to that frequent ravaging carried out by Bahmanis. He utilized his espionage and scouting division to identify potential spawning locations of Bahmani generals. This proved to be too critical to narrow down the lock-in zone. Finally, Bahamanis gathered in Bidar and were about to start their marauding. But to their surprise, Vijayanagar was ready that time. In Diwani, a decisive battle was fought resulting in undisputed and bull-dozing victory for Vijayanagar. Bijapur, Bidar and Gulbarga was annexed into Vijayanagar. Islamic governor of Golkonda province was defeated too. Bahmani sultan himself was seriously injured. In a fierce battle with the retreating army near Kovilkonda, once again Krishnadevaraya emerged victorious and annexed that region also.

1518 A.D. – Rana Kumbha had started the demolition of neighboring sultanates. His successors also shared the same expansionist view. His grandson, Sangram Singh, popularly known as Rana Sanga, achieved notable success in uniting the Rajputs again after a long time. During his reign, Turk rulers in Ganges plane were under constant threat. During one such event, then ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, prepared an army against Rajputs. Royal Turk army managed to endure heats of that battle no more than five hours. Lodi himself left battlefield to save life. One Turk prince was held captive, who, later was released against a huge ransom.

1519 A.D. – This year proved to be crucial in determining the establishment of Bharat supremacy finally against Turk force. Rajputs under leadership of Rana Sanga faced a simultaneous threat from all three powerful neighboring sultanates. In the front of Gagron, they faced a confederation of Gujrat and Malwa sultanate. Turks were well known for their cavalry. But, the Bharat forces also proved to be coping up with changes in styles of warfare. Rajput cavalry, with a swift and surgical attack, tore through the ranks of Gujrat sultanate. That lefts only the Malwa army in the ground. Malwa was not less intimidating, but with early destruction of their ally, they did not have a chance to stand against Rajputs. Sultan of Gujrat was taken as a prisoner. On second frontier of Dholpur, Ibrahim Lodi attacked Rajput troops. Lodi brought a gigantic military with him this time, to avenge his earlier defeat. Again, Rana Sanga depended on speed and agility to deal with a comparatively numerically superior enemy. Lodi was defeated a second time. Boundaries of Rajput territory expanded in both directions. As a result, both Gujrat and Malwa sultanates existed only by name. Lodi’s power also diminished to a great extent.

1520 A.D. – Turk forces tried to rise again in Gujrat sultanate within one year. The news reached to Rana Sanga within no time. He called for an ultimate war again Gujrat sultanate and assembled all his allies within the region. When Rana Sanga apeared at Idar, instead of facing his army, Nizam-ul-Mulk retreated to Ahmednagar. Rajputs re-captured Idar without much effort. But Rana Sanga went on with his invasion and reached Ahmednagar. Though islamic troops did make a resistance, again Nizam fled towards Ahmedabad. At Ahmedabad, reinforcements arrived for Nizam and he prepared a defensive garrison. But Rajputs came out on the top of conflict and Ahmedmagar. Gujrat sultanate finally fell before Rajputs.

1520 A.D. – Battle of Raichur – One of most memorable battles in medieval Bharat is the Battle of Raichur. For the first time since the Turk invasion, traditional Bharat style of putting a mammoth army in the battleground returned into reality. Usually, in early medieval times, heavily armored cavalry and elephants were put forward to bull-doze the enemy. With progress in time, quick attacks and hit-n-run techniques started to become prevailing strategies. For the same reason, usually none of parties involved in a warfare thought about deploying lakhs of soldiers in battle anymore. But, one of greatest military geniuses in medieval Bharat, Krishnadevaraya thought otherwise. In an attempt to hit a fatal blow on deccan sultanates, he brought out his full potential. Sources tell that size of his army will easily reach a head-count of 7,50,000; while not taking into account his ~50,000 scouts and spies. Not only that, he made commercial relations with Portuguese colony and hired Portuguese musketeers and arquebuses. Bijapur’s 1,40,000-men strong army was totally dwarfed by this gigantic Bharat force. One advantage that the sultanate possessed was superior firepower. Vijayanagar initiated the attack and hit the middle of Bijapur ranks. To recover from initial thrust, Bijapur sultan ordered extensive bombardment with all his cannons. It forced Vijayanagar army to retreat temporarily. Bijapur cavalry chased back first line of Vijayanagar ranks for over a mile where the second line of Vijayanagar forces were standing by. That extraordinary military arrangement absorbed that strike. Second push by Vijayanagar came out to be too much for Bijapur sultanate. The army was scattered, generals were killed, Vijayanagar army crossed the river and laid siege on Raichur fort. Portuguese arquebuses picked up defenders from fort’s wall which eased up the task of capturing the fort. After the fort was owned, Krishnadevaraya went ahead further and a bloodbath occurred in Sultan’s camp. Bijapur sultanate was annexed by Vijayanagar. This crushing victory spread throughout Bharat very soon. The tales had such a lasting impact that Babur did not dare to attack southern Bharat.

Going by the narrative of mainstream historians, the notion of existence of century-long Turk empire in Bharat seems to be a over-stretch. First of all, Turk rulers could not settle beyond the Ganges plain. In spite of Turk victory over Prithwiraj Chauhan, Rajputs did not bow down and they came back even stronger than before. In Eastern front, Assam and Kalinga kingdoms stopped their progress. In Southern Bharat, Turk expedition met temporary success but it did not last long. Not only that, even this regional province in Northern plains ceased to exist after one and a half century and it broke down into smaller independent territories, most of whom failed to maintain their sovereignty against Bharat states. It is too sad that then Bharat kingdoms could not put aside their internal differences and initiate a coordinated campaign to chase back the invaders. But a careful study of political landscape during that period discloses that Turk foundation was on the verge of complete destruction. Had the Bharat kingdoms (i.e. Rajputs, Kalinga, Vijaynagar, Reddis etc.) possessed same type of political awareness like their predecessor of the era of Arab Caliphate, probably for third time in a row, entire Bharat would have got rid of islam.

Yes!!! History Does Lie

While the Turk territories in Bharat were being squeezed from all directions by Bharat kingdoms, next wave of islamic invasion appeared in the north-western border. Those invaders from central asia, usually referred as ‘Mughals’ in educational books on history in modern India, had their heritage linked with the Turks. Studies on Asian anthropology do not reveal any particular tribe or community which can be termed as “Mughals”. In spite of very close similarity with pronunciation of the word “Mongols”, so-called Mughals had very little to no connection with them. Even in history syllabus in other countries, we cannot find any mentioning about Mughals. Lack of explanation about origin of the word “Mughal”, let us conclude that it was actually second Turk invasion in Bharat. Whatever the nationality of those invaders was, biased history of Bharat textbooks attach a badge of golden-era to those uncivilized vandals. Credit for everything extraordinary those were ever achieved in Bharat, starting from architecture to arts, science to economy, ultimately goes entirely or partially to those looters, in spite of lack of even slightest evidence. While this strange mindset of Bharat historians is yet to be understood, a detailed research quite easily brings out that Mughals were no better than the ancient Huns whose primary objective was to plunder. But, on the contrary of overrated glorification, they even did not succeed. That great Mughal rule was actually a Rajput-Mughal joint venture. The last one of them, Aurangzeb, was too over-confident and he went on with the illusion of islamization of Bharat. As a result, they met the same fate as previous islamic rulers and were badly beaten up by indigenous kingdoms. At the end, we see that Bharat forces (Marathas, Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs etc.) gradually becoming dominating ones. The only reason all lost territories could not be recovered was the arrival of multitude of European forces in Bharat mainland, which changed the political landscape to a great extent. In other words, British rule actually saved existence of islam in Bharat.

1556 A.D.– Babur was able to set up a foothold through several holocausts, which obviously are deliberately ignored by history textbooks. But, as mentioned earlier, he did not dare to invade Deccans yet, because of presence of strong kingdoms like Vijayanagar or Kalinga. Though Rana Sanga faced his only defeate at first battle of Panipat, Rajputs were also trying to pull everything back together. Other Bharat warrior clans were on the process of regrouping themselves too. During reign of Babur’s son, Humayun, one tug-of-war started between Mughals and the Turk-Afghans for power of Delhi. While all these chaos were going on, slowly and silently, one Bharat warrior, disguised as a commander general, was building up his own army. When the time came, he began his campaign. He was on a mission to subdue the rebellions against the Turk-Afghan ruler, Sher Shah. He was doing that happily and with great enthusiasm, but his goal was not carrying the Turk flag of victory. His hidden agenda was to free Bharat land from both Turk and Mughal invaders. While he was defeating the rebels, he did not forget to establish his personal control over administration, treasury and army on those provinces. While he was in Bengal, a vacuum of power were seen at Delhi. This was the moment he was waiting for; now he returned towards Delhi. On his way through today’s Bihar, Uttar Pardesh, Madhya Pradesh, he is said to win 22 battles. His battle experience was so excellent that in almost all his enemies could not even finish the battle. On some occasions, Mughal commanders left their positions simply after hearing about his incoming. At Tuglaqabad, he declared one final battle against royal Mughal army. With over 50,000+ strong army, he, at first launched a fake attack on his enemies and quickly retreated. While his enemy thought that they had won and brought down their defense, then he ordered for actual attack. Mughals did not have any alternate plan and they fled the battlefield. He declared himself as the emperor. Probably you are wondering who might this legendary warrior be. Yes, he is almost forgotten today, his name was Hemchandra Vikramaditya.

1565 A.D. – Bengal was not a Walk-Over – After the reign of King Ganesha, although islamic rule was restored in Bengal, Bharat warriors did not give up. Gradually, sensing the increasing power of Bharat kings, islamic rulers decided to maintain peace with them in Eastern Bharat. But things were changing. Strategies were on their way to throw out the invaders. King Rudranarayan, one almost forgotten such hero, finally made a move. Slowly but steadily, he brought south-western Bengal within his rule. Then, he made alliance with Kingdoms of Kalinga, Bihar (modern day) and other indigenous kings of Bengal. This strategy to make alliance with Kalinga was a masterstroke, because Kalinga was already within a non-aggression treaty with Mughals; thus he ruled out the possibility of another Mughal army coming into Turks’ aid. After the diplomatic missions had been successfully carried out, he declared war against the islamic provinces of Bengal. The armies met in the battle of Tribeni, under general Rajib Lochan Roy. The result was decisive and islamic party was entirely destroyed in that battle. It is really unfortunate that today’s youth do not get a chance to know about this glorious history of Bengal.

1576 A.D. – Battle of Haldighat– This is one of most acknowledged battle of history of medieval Bharat. Gravity of this battle does not lie within the magnitude or bloodshed. Mughal era, as already mentioned earlier, was actually an empire controlled by both Rajputs and Mughals. Mughals were under a non-aggression pact with most of Rajput kings. That is why they got rid of the threat from one of Bharat’s most famed warrior clan. That also explains about surprisingly little presence of Rajputs in the list of battles against Mughals. Going by the chronology in this article, it is very clear that Rajputs were the foremost power to throw Turks out of Bharat mainland. But, after Mughals came, there were very few instances of any major battle between Rajputs and Mughals. The only reason which restricted Rajputs from taking on those invader head-on was that they also had vested interest. But, obviously, there were exceptional brave-hearts who had something else in their mind. Foremost of them, almost been promoted to a level of a national icon today, Rana Pratap is one of perfect examples which demonstrates why Bharat is the only nation in the world to ever have survived islamic agression. He was almost out of his allies, resources and options. Still, against all odds, he stood apart from his contemporaries and challenged Mughals. Mughals, along with their allies and stooges, possessed a military strength which easily dwarfed that of Rana Pratap. But that could not make Rana Pratap to stand down. He went ahead and crafted out a professional army out of local tribes. In the battle of Haldighat, he brilliantly utilized his limited resource. Outcome of that battle was not decisive. It is true that Mughals held the ground, but Rana Pratap continued his war against Mughals for years. Even if the battle ended with Mughals in a slightly advantageous position, it was just the beginning of a war which Mughals were never able to finish.

1582 A.D. – The pages removed from mainstream history – Battle of Haldighat probably did not go that well for Rana Pratap. But, ultimate level of his stamina, determination and bravery came out when we see him continuing guerrilla warfare for long six years. Even after losing control of three critical military garrisons, he never lost his esteem. Even after he went underground, he continued to make new allies, new treaties, new army and his own administration. During these years, Mughals continued to send series of campaigns to capture and kill Rana Pratap. But every time, they were outwitted and outmuscled by inflexible fortitude and sheer willpower. Ultimate showdown happened in 1582, when Rana Pratap, along with his son Amar Sing, came back for another bout with Mughals in the Battle of Dewar. While historians keep mum about this battle, local tales describe about the horror created by Rajput army. It is said that Rana Pratap cut off a Mughal warrior in half, along with his horse, by just one strike of sword (Rana Pratap’s sword weighted 25 kg.). Among many such knee-cramping references, it is not possible to define which ones were real and which are just folklore; but the terror of that war sucked out the morale out of Mughal army. 36000 mughals put down their weapons to save their lives. After this, Rana Pratap continued his victory run for couple more years and recovered almost all lost territory. Akbar, after seeing back-to-back failures, decided to come himself; but after six months, he went back and decided to give up.

1603 A.D. – During late sixteenth century, islamic garrisons in Bengal started facing rising power of native kingdoms. Smaller and less powerful leaders started to collaborate with each other and stronger unions were formed. Those kingdoms used to show enough power to hold their ground against twofold invasion from two different imperial powers – Turks and Mughals. One such kingdom, Bhurishrestha, usually maintained a neutral stance in case of rivalry between two branches of islamic army. But, diplomacy alone never was enough to maintain peace. King Rudranarayan and his coalition defeated the invaders and stopped the invasions for few decades. But the Turks returned with newly built army. His wife and then queen of Bhurishrestha, Queen Bhabashankari, had extensive intellect and training in military and administrative tactics. Being afraid by her rising power, neighboring Turks carried out a surgical strike to capture the queen. But this type of sabotages were something she could foresee. She used to recruit army personnel from each and every layer of society, irrespective of caste, which was something rare those days. Her point of view proved its effectiveness when her spies informed the royal guards about the Turk infiltration much ahead. Not only that, over-glorified Turk forces failed to endure the swords of a handful of female bodyguards of the queen. Once the main army of queen joined the battle, the Turks abandoned their mission. Most of them were killed. Their leader, Osman Khan, fled under disguise.

1603 A.D. – 1604 A.D. – After the initial sneak attack failed, Turks quickly prepared for a full-fledged direct war. They already had a spy within Queen Bhabashankari‘s ranks. Turk strategy was to launch an internal treachery in parallel to external invasion. But, the robustness of the queen’s administration was again proved itself when the internal policing network preempted the plan and took countermeasures. Along with queen’s elite female battalion, three more divisions were dispatched from Chhaunapur, Basdingagarh and Laskardanga. As reserve forces, her royal advisors quickly assembled a standby regiment out of locals. Commander of Pendo fort led two regiments with him to intercept the renegade battalion, who were in their way to provide aid to Turks. All these were carried out so fluently that the invaders could not get even a slightest hint. The traitors were stopped before even taking a single step. Remaining four divisions made entrenchment at Bashuri. When Turk army arrived, they found themselves surrounded from three directions. Being in a disadvantageous position by both strategically and numerically, Turks definitely had no chance. They again failed in their mission. Queen Bhabashankari’s fame reached to Mughal court in Delhi. Hearing about all those battles, Mughals also did not dare to increase tension with her kingdom. Probably the name of queen Bhabashankari is not quite common now-a-days; but the title she received, “Ray-Baghini”, is used even today to indicate women empowerment.

1606 A.D. – Rajput resistance to Mughals did not end with Rana Pratap’s death. His successor, Amar Singh I also followed his footsteps. On the other side, Akbar also died and his son Jahangir became the ruler of Mughals. Jahangir restarted assault against Mewar. He deployed an army as strong as 80,000 soldiers and appointed two of his most trusted generals in this critical campaign. Not only Mughals placed an army at least four times bigger than Rajputs, historians mention that gears of Mughal army were of superior quality. However, they met in the same place where Rana Pratap destroyed Akbar’s pride, Dewar. Amar Singh ordered his troops to peel off Mughal regiment layer after layer from both flanks, instead of a direct attack. At the end, almost 50,000 warriors of Mughal army were killed. They had no other way than accepting defeat.

1615 A.D. – 1618 A.D. – Imperial expansion of Mughals clashed with the powerful Ahoms in their eastern front. Earlier, the same Ahom kingdom pushed back the Turks. Bakhtiar Khilji suffered a disastrous defeat against them. Post that incident, no islamic ruler dared to look up on far-east part of Bharat. The long-awaited conflict resumed on Mughal era. Mughals were eagerly waiting to find an excuse to declare war against Ahoms, which they have found when Ahom expelled a Mughal merchant based on legal terms. Mughals immediately launched an heavy assault on Ahoms. Ahoms were caught by surprise and they could not resist the invasion. After more than one such back-to-back attempts, Mughals were able to snatch away Ahom territory. But Ahoms quickly regrouped and they destroyed Mughals near Bharali. This initial success boosted Ahom morale and they continued their counter missions against Mughals. It intensified during the reign of Pratap Singha. Though during this period, there was no more major border redesign between them.

1621 A.D. – On the north-western frontier of Bharat, beside Rajputs, another Bharat community started to stand against the foreign invasion in mid-seventeenth century. Initially started the journey as a purely religious brotherhood, namely Sikhs, they converted into one of most ferocious armed military during that time. In spite of considerably small in terms of manpower and resources, Sikhs used to give really a tough time to Mughals. This transmission of Sikhs under Guru Hargobinda raised alarm of then Mughal leader, Jahangir. He tried to dominate Sikhs by imprisoning Guru Hargobinda, but all failed. The appeal of Sikhs was spreading very quickly. Conflict between them and Mughals were inevitable. First blood was drawn in the year 1621. In the battle of Rohilla, Mughals got the taste of Sikh swords. It seemed like they underestimated the uprising and was defeated quickly.

1628 A.D. – 1635 A.D. – Bharat warriors had a tendency to never have bowed down against foreign invasions. The same commitment towards motherland which was present during the time of Mauryas, appears to be driving the Sikhs also. Shortly after they took up weapons in their hands, they had become primary adversaries of Mughals. Initial setback during the time of Guru Hargobinda temporarily stopped Mughals to continue their expansionist policy towards western Bharat. But they came back after a decade. Mughals were aggressively searching for an excuse to pick up a fight. Little disagreements used to be turned into major conflicts. In one such incident, an army comprising of 9000 Mughal soldiers were dispatched to take on Sikhs in the city of Amritsar. After two days of horrible battle, Mughals suffered heave losses. Almost half of their army was destroyed which forced them to go back as of then. Mughals did not lose hope and they initiated planning for another all-out assault on Sikhs. Few years after, almost a 35,000+ strong Mughal army charged into another Sikh stronghold in Lahira. There are very few instances in the world where a huge disadvantage of numeric supremacy have been nullified by never-say-die attitude. Almost 4,000 Sikhs firmly held their ground against an enemy at least 8-9 times stronger. In subsequent year, in an attempt to strike into the heart of Sikhs, Mughal army laid siege to Kartarpur. Though the Sikhs had to go through a hell-like situation, they never preferred surrender over independence. The iron-like spine seemed to be unbreakable and the siege was about to be failed. At last, Mughals tried to penetrate through the defense and it all came to a duel. Seeing their commander dead in that duel, Mughals retreated. All these extraordinary accounts never found their rightful place in history syllabus, but local tales carry the records of those glorious incidents.

1640 A.D. – Shah Jahan attempted to do the same which none of his predecessors, not even the Turks were able to achieve. He went on to conquer the Himalayan range. After hearing news of death of the King Mahipati Shah, he sensed a perfect opportunity to start an offensive. But, Queen Karnavati took up the duty to protect her kingdom. She was well informed in advance about a large Mughal army advancing towards her kingdom. She built up series of hurdles and booby traps on the way of Mughal army. Stone walls, fallen trees, roadblocks – Mughals had to face every kind of obstructions possible every now and then. Not only they started to tire our physically, all those obstructions were placed so strategically that one strong and gigantic army slowly started to become divided into smaller groups. The narrow passes forced the Mughal army to divide into batches to overcome each barrier. As soon as one small regiment managed to cross one hurdle, Queen Karnavati’s army attacked with lightning-fast speed. In spite of possessing a quite intimidating military prowess, Mughals were never able to fight with their full potential. Since they were lured deep within the enemy territory, it was not possible for them to go back to safe house. Soon the monsoon started and the rain worsened situation. The journey appeared to be a never-ending one for them. Their inspiration and morale started to decline. Not being able to cope up with the full-proof defensive strategy devised by some of least-known and never-hailed army generals of medieval Bharat, Mughals scattered away from battlefield. Whoever managed to remain alive, they were caught and as per the queen’s orders, their noses were cut-off. That sign was labelled as a permanent mark of insult of so-called mighty Mughals.

1661 A.D. – Rise of Chhatrapati Shivaji – Probably the great personality does not need another introduction. Amidst the terror of islamic expansion, though there was no short of resistance offered by different Bharat kings, they still lacked that uttermost push from within to wipe out last trace of invaders from Bharat. During the invasion of Arabs and Ghaznabaids, we see Bharat kings to stand united against a world-breaking force. Those era proved military might of medieval Bharat which decisively dominated even the mightiest power in rest of the world. Things changed during Turk era. Warriors forgot to join hands against a mightier force. Though they spent their last drop of blood in battlefield, that was not enough. Commanding an army of humongous magnitude certainly prove the might of a King, but, to win a war, it needs something more. Going by military journals of ancient Bharat, hitting hard often does not produce desired result, the King should know when and where to hit the enemy. Along with it, terrain can decide the fate of a war before it even starts. A King should know when to announce ceasefire and when to shift to offence. And probably most important of all, a King should be proficient in diplomacy, making or breaking alliances. Almost no single King during Turk invasion was able to meet all these checklists. As a result, islamic invaders were able to break the 500-year deadlock and could set a foot on Bharat. Still, Bharat kings lately realized their mistake and reconciled against those marauders. After the Turks submitted to Bharat kings, Mughals put forward their diplomats to make alliances and non-aggression treaties with regional Bharat powers. Diplomatic policy of Mughals is something that can be used as a learning material even today. They used to declare war against one target and make friendship with others at the same time, thus preventing the risk of facing any confederacy of Bharat kings. Clearly, Bharat desperately needed someone who could beat Mughals in their own game. Thankfully, one such leader, Chhatrapati Shivaji, emerged from the clan of Marathas. Mughals became wary about him and sent a mission in order to capture him in 1661. Marathas drew them within jungles and utilized their precise artillery strikes to bring them down. Mughals had no other way than unconditional surrender.

1663 A.D. – 1667 A.D. – The first phase of Ahom-Mughal conflict ended with Mughals giving up for then. But after a decade, they came back and a bloody war ensued. Ahoms were forced to sign into a peace treaty which was favorable to Mughals. But that maritime of Mughals did not last long. Ahom king Chakradhwaj Singha ascended the throne with a goal to drive back Mughals from his territory. He started with economic non-cooperation. Then, slowly but steadily, he went on to implement a policy to expel Mughals from everywhere of his kingdom. In spite of warnings and threatening from Mughals, he did not stop, instead he was preparing for another war. On 1667, the operation started; Ahom army marched down towards Mughal territory and surrounded it from two flanks – north and south. Without offering any significant fight, Mughals retreate again, Ahoms recovered all their lost territory.

1671 A.D. – Battle of Saraighat – Angered by Mughal defeat in hands of Ahoms, Aurangzeb dispatched an army of 50,000+ strength to subdue Ahoms. To deal with such a gigantic army, Ahom commander, Lachit Barphukan decided the hilly terrain of Guwahati. He set up a naval defense in one cleverly chosen area which was narrow and muddy. He knew that Mughals were more accustomed to a open-field war rather than a guerrilla tactics. Still, once the defensive setup proved to be not enough to hold back Mughals, he ordered a strategic retreat. He aimed to buy as much time as possible through diplomatic missions, fake retreats, proxy wars and what not!! At last, a direct war was ignited. Though Mughals had numerical supremacy by a huge margin, Ahoms had the home-ground advantage. That war started to cost both sides. Mughals aimed to break the moral backbone of Ahom soldiers by bringing in more and more reinforcements. Seeing the sheer size of Mughal navy, a minor part of Ahom regiment started to fall back. But all of sudden, Ahom admiral ordered an all-out attack on Mughal navy. That sudden strike came down on Mughals when they least expected it. The balance of the war drastically pivoted in favor of Ahoms after that attack. Mughal left the battlefield. This battle has been marked as one of most glorious events in Bharat history.

1672 A.D. – Credit of Maratha defeat in 1666 is commonly attributed to Mughals, but we often forget the reality that actually it was a Rajput vs Maratha war. Since Rajputs were allied with Mughals starting from Akbar’s time, Mughals did not dare to face Marathas by themselves. So, actually two of strongest Bharat forces of that time met at the battlefield. While nothing can explain why honorable Rajputs had fallen to such a depth, undoubtedly Mughals were benefited out of that battle. However, that battle cost Marathas 23 important forts. After that, in next 5-6 years, entire Bharat witnessed tyranny of Aurangzeb, Shivaji’s oath to protect Bharat, Aurangzeb’s call for ceasefire to Shivaji which actually was a betrayal, Shivaji’s famous escape and then Marathas’ rentless campaign against Mughals. On 1672, Chhatrapati Shivaji targeted to take back Salher, which was an important trade center. He deployed 40,000 soldiers under leadership of two of his famous generals. One of them, Prataprao Gurjar, hit the Mughal garrison at Salher with a small fraction of cavalries and quickly retreated. Since Marathas used light cavalry in this battle, Mughals had a hard time capturing them. When finally Mughal horses caught up with fleeing Marathas, they discovered that another 15000 fresh Maratha horsemen were ready to fight. On the other side, Moropant Pingle led a division of 20,000 infantry and attacked rest of Mughal forces at Salher. The victory was confirmed within one day in favor of Marathas. In the same year, Mughal suffered another heavy defeat by Marathas at the Battle of Vikramgad.

1681 – 1689 A.D. – Beginning of 27-year War – The battle ensued between Mughals and Marathas was already meant to be a long lasting one. Being famous in history as ’27-Year War’, its magnitude and impact can only be equated to another such marathon series of heroic battles against invaders; that is, the 11 year long battles carried out by Deccan Bharat kingdoms against Turks. Shivaji’s son, Shambhaji, increased the intensity of attacks against Mughals. It all started when Mughals laid siege on fort Ramsej. But it was not an easy task, even after several months, there were absolutely no progress (it took 7 years to capture that fort). Mughals made a pact with Portuguese which angered Shambhaji. In one quick and deadly attack, Marathas pushed back Portuguese far within their own territory. Mughal leader, Aurangzeb decided to come by himself and surround the Marathas from two sides – from North and South. Though Mughals gained some success initially, soon Marathas came back with a bang. Souther division of Mughals suffered heavy defeat and cut-off from their supplies. The northern division was still proceeding slowly, but within a couple of months they found themselves falling within Maratha trap. In that dual front battle against Marathas, they also surrendered. The next few years saw wins and losses on both sides. Finally, Shambhaji was captured and tortured to death, but his successor, Rajaram took up the mantle.

1691 A.D – 1696 A.D. – The battle with the Marathas not only worked like a critical strike on Mughal military, but it hurt their economy also very badly. Seizing the opportunity, kings of Kangra valley and surroundings turned against Mughals. Fearing that the situation might go out of control, Aurangzeb ordered his general, Azim Khan to teach those kings a lesson. But the things had been changed. During the Turk invasion, Bharat kings used to face the enemy one by one, which only made the task easier for invaders. Whenever they sensed an obvious defeat, they called it a day and quickly retreated from battlefield. Thus they could have an estimate of respective Bharat king’s power and weakness, which used to become very crucial information for their next encounter. During the end of Mughal rule, we can see attempts of making alliances. In this period also, an agreement was accepted by King Bhim Chand, King Raj Singh, King Sukhdev, King Ram Singh and King Prithwi Chand. They called for help from the Sikhs also. Guru Gobind Singh was more than eager to diminish Mughal terrorism in Bharat and immediately answered. The combined resistance met Mughals at Nadaun. The battle ended in an outright defeat for Mughals. However, they did not stop attempting to bring their dominion back in this region but it all went in vain.

1698 A.D – 1707 A.D. – Second phase of Mughal-Maratha was marked an important chapter in both Bharat and islamic history. This is the period when Marathas was on their way to win the war. From islamic point of view, their one and a half-millennia long effort was finally about to meet to its end. Mughals put all their resources and power towards the southern border against Marathas. On the other hand, Marathas had two military genius, Santaji and Dhanaji. To deal with Mughal strategy to surround from northern and southern flanks, they decided stretch the battlefield from western coast to eastern seashore. Marathas were the dominating naval power that time and they could easily control trade routes. This strategy became very effective against Mughals, who were able to manage their undeserving glory solely depending on Rajputs and other allies. Flaws and shortcoming of Mughals started to become prominent. Usually Mughals were accustomed to bring an entire regiment with them, lay siege on enemy garrisons for some period and then rushing into enemy capital and creating terror upon innocents. But Marathas used to build up defensive fortifications in strategic location which were used to hold back Mughals for really long time. Marathas did not even try to finish their enemy; as mentioned in this article earlier, they knew where and when to hit, thanks to the teachings of Shivaji. While Mughals used to give their everything to capture one Maratha stronghold, Marathas used to hit somewhere else where Mughal army presence was minimal. Once Marathas managed to capture a territory, they again built up another fortification there. So, even if Aurangzeb continued to capture cities after cities from Marathas at the expense of huge amount of resources and bloodshed of his own side, at the end, it appeared that Marathas already made up for their lost territory with newly conquered lands. Political map of Bharat was rapidly changing, Mughals went out of plan and started randomly hitting here and there. It did not matter how hard Mughals pushed, Marathas resisted as long as possible only to lengthen tenure of conflict. In the meantime, Marathas concentrated their effort elsewhere. As a result, after three decades, Mughal treasury was almost nil, their military lost all its might, but Marathas still had their empire intact.

1708 A.D – 1710 A.D. – The storming Marathas overshadows valor and bravery of Sikhs against Mughals during early eighteenth century. Though the magnitude of Sikh-Mughal war was nothing compared to that of Maratha-Mughal war, the intensity was no less. Sikhs suffered temporary setbacks earlier. But they did not let go of their honor and culture. They geared up to face another series of Mughal aggression. Just like how Marathas were pressing Mughals from south, Sikhs were doing the same from north. Shortly after Aurangzeb’s death, Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikhs to attack a Mughal garrison at Sonepat. Almost without any opposition, Sikhs gained the victory. After that, Sikhs marched to the city of Samana. Not only defeating the Mughal army-posts here, Sikhs only stopped after killing every last one of Mughal supporters there (the same technique Caliphate used to apply on conquered provinces). Other Mughal-majority establishments met the same fate. First major resistance Sikhs faced was at Sirhing, where an army of 20,000 Mughal soldiers were ready for them. In the battle that ensued, Sikh troops scattered Mughals away. Forced islamization was already in progress in all its neighboring area. After conquering any city/province, Mughals used to focus on changing the demography there, to increase their supporting base; it involved both conversion and migration. Arrival of Sikhs not only stopped it; Sikhs took extra care to prevent any more possibility of such initiatives in future by eliminating all Mughal sympathizers.

1728 A.D – A Copybook Checkmate – “Supreme excellence consists of breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting“. This famous quote, as specified in military classic, “Art of War“, was converted into a practical example in medieval Bharat. From the very beginning, Marathas used to attempt to attain victory with minimum loss of resource possible. This evolution of battle strategy reached to its perfection in the Battle of Palkhed, by Bajirao I. Mughal influence was declining that time, major part of their territory was conquered by rising Bharat powers; while rest of them was split into independent states. One such newborn islamic state was the Nizams. With increasing dominance of Marathas over Mughals, another change in political angle of Bharat was on its way. Conflict of interest between Marathas and Nizam quickly progressed into army maneuvers. At early stage, powerful regiments from both sides were mobilized towards each other. But Bajirao abandoned this route midway and turned northwards and then, to west. Predicting a traditional head-on collision, Nizam brought his formidable heavy artillery. Aiming to crush Marathas, he diverted all his focus in a pursuit behind them. But Marathas brought their light cavalry into play. Nizam was not able to cope up and turned towards Maratha capital. Unguarded Maratha outposts and fortifications were falling without much resistance. Apparently a Nizam victory seemed like only a matter of time. But Marathas never came back to recover their capital, as Nizam expected them to do. Instead, they initiated a rush into the heart of Nizam territory. Nizam absolutely got trumped by this move and was forced to hastily redirect his troops once more. Again, Bajirao did not care to set up any obstruction in front of Nizam until they reach Palkhed, where they were cut off every type of supplies. Bajirao knew that his lightly armored troops will vanquish against Nizam’s heavy artillery and that’s why he remained out of their range and laid siege on them. Seeing no other way, Nizam agreed to come to each and every terms as claimed by Marathas, which was just another name of unconditional surrender. Bajirao fooled Nizam into penetrating deep, and thus managed to clear out his way towards Nizam capital without having the need to engage even one soldier. This historic event has been reduced to a one-liner in today’s textbooks.

1736 A.D – 1737 A.D. – History syllabus of modern Bharat dedicates almost one chapter to chant names of each Mughal ruler. It elaborately mentions how Mughals spread their influence in different parts of Bharat. But it allots only one paragraph for describing the events during later phase of Aurangzeb’s rule and afterwards, until arrival of British. It completely eliminates the crucial phase of Bharat legacy, where the Caliphate project of an islamized Bharat finally was about to meet an end. The Marathas came a long way from a regional force to becoming an imperial power. Not only that, after the days when an union of Bharat kingdoms drove away foreign enemies (Battle of Bahraich), it was the first instance when any Bharat-originated clan was showing the potential to project power outside the natural boundaries of Hindukush range. Under the command of Bajirao I, Marathas planned a final assault on Mughal capital itself, Delhi. He sent half of his army under Malhar Rao Holkar and Pillaji Yadav, towards the Ganges plane, which was the economic base of Mughals. As expected, Mughals dispatched significant part of their forces to defend that region. Bajirao himself led rest of his army towards Delhi. Though Mughals gained victory in the Ganges front, they later understood that it was only a diversion. Unguarded Delhi fell very easily against Marathas. Later, Mughals joined hands with Nizam and declared war against Marathas. But, the two-front war ended in a conclusive victory for Marathas and finalized the fate of Bharat. Defeat of this united islamic front determined the failure of last attempt of islamic forces to take over Bharat.

Almost every other ancient civilizations could not endure the Islamic onslaught. It’s not that they were weak, on the contrary they were very advanced and developed civilization of that time; besides, their military might was also beyond question. They even defeated the Islamic aggression initially. But the pure imperialistic Caliphs used to pour down continuous waves of attacks without any break. Thus, wealth of these ancient civilizations started to be sucked up by continuous warfare. Soldiers became demotivated after seeing that all their might actually has no effect to inflict any fear on the Caliphate army. And after a quite long restless battle (probably spanning a couple of years), the civilizations actually gave up and bowed down to Islam. But there was a big difference in case of Bharat rulers then, the ancient Hindu-s. The explanation is twofold. First, The strategy of the Caliphate was to sent attacks after attack on enemy territory regardless of the outcome, at last the enemy got tired and gave up. But in Bharat, when the Islamic army managed to conquer any Bharat kingdom, the Bharat King did not surrender to them. If they were able to come out alive and without being captured from the battlefield, instead of giving up, they took one step backward, gathered up new army, formed new alliance and went ahead for another round. Thus the Caliphate met a force not only devastating in nature, but also capable of using the same potential of pouring down continuous and consistent aggression without being bothered about the result, which rivaled the strategy of Caliphate itself. Other ancient civilizations gave up once they faced a crushing defeat. But Hindu Kings believed in ideology of “losing the battle, winning the war”. So, what was the result? – Caliphate experienced that even after 100 years of consistent war and millions of islamic death, it did not even set a foot beyond river Indus. Caliphate got a taste of its own medicine and this time, it was their turn to give up. The first major success of Islam came only because of Treachery of one Bharat general and over-confidence of one Bharat King. Second, the Caliphate were also infamous for their behavior to non-islamists. The Bharat armies also treated them in the same way but of a higher magnitude. In medieval Bharat, it was a very common scenario that the Islamic leaders were running away leaving their armies behind, just to save his own head. In Battle of Rajasthan, the fleeing Arab army did not even look back unless they cross the river Indus. In the Battle of Bahraich, since the Hindu kings blocked all the escape routes, entire Islamic royal army got slain (amounting 120000+ at least). When Hindu Shahis of Kabul and Zabul joined their forces, the destruction was enough to shake the Caliphate so that they gave up the dream of conquering Bharat for decades. To conclude, yes, it’s true that Islam manged to enter Bharat heartland and conquer some lands at last. But gradually Hindus came back, becoming stronger and stronger. Even after Islam gains some temporary success, they failed to conquer Bharat, instead their power itself diminished by the same kind of aggression displayed by the Hindu-s, which they once applied on their enemies. Today, India is a going-to-be superpower in the world and possess enough strength to wipe out entire islamic world in a conquest.

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Sources:
Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India – Jaswant Lal Mehta
Al Hind: The Making Of The Indo Islamic World, Vol. 1 — Early Medieval India And The Expansion Of Islam — 7th-11th Centuries — Andre Wink
An Advanced History of India – Ramesh Chandra Majumdar
Ancient Indian History and Civilization – Sailendra Nath Sen
Birotwe Bangali – Anil Chandra Ghosh
Classical Accounts of India – Ramesh Chandra Majumdar
Conquest of Tamerlane – Cothburn O’Neal
Early Chauhan dynasties – Dhasrath Sharma
Hindu Pad Padshahi – Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
History of Origin of Some Clans in India – Mangal Sen Jindal
Indian Resistance To Early Muslim Invaders Upto 1206 AD — Dr. Ram Gopal Mishra
Kitab Futuh Al Buldan: Vol. 2 — Al Baladhuri, Translated by Francis Clark Murgotten
Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth – John R. McLane
Maharana Kumbha : Sovereign, Soldier, Scholar – Har Bilas Sarda
Maritime History of India: An Overview – Amit Kumar
Military History of India – Jadunath Sarkar
Medieval India – K.L.Khurana
Medieval India : From Sultanate to Mughals – Satish Chandra
Medieval Odissa : A Socio-Economic Study – Shishir Kumar Panda
Padmavati – Sanjeev Newar
Pashchim Bonger Sanskriti – Binoy Ghosh
Saffron Swords – Manoshi Sinha Rawal
Sahyadris to Hindukush – Aneesh Gokhale
Sikh Militancy in the Seventeenth Century – Hardip Singh Syan
Shivaji : Hindu King in Islamic India – James W. Laine
South India and her Muhammadan invaders – S.K.Aiyangar
The Arabs in Sind — 712-1026 AD – John Jehangir Bede
The Chachnama: Volume 1 (1900) — Translated from Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg
The Dynastic History Of Northern India — Vol. 1 — H. C. Ray
The Early Rulers of Khajuraho – Shishirkumar Mitra
The History And Culture Of The Indian People: Vol. 3 — The Classical Age — R. C. Majumdar
The History Of India As Told By Its Own Historians, Vol. 2 — The Muhammadan Period — Elliot And Dawson
The History of the Reddi Kingdoms – Malampalli Somasekhara Sarma
The Indian Empire : Its History, People and Products – William Wilson Hunter
The Khalsa Raj – Anil Chandra Banerjee
The Naked Mughals: Illustrated – Vashi Sharma
The Princely and Noble Families of the Former Indian Empire: Himachal Pradesh – Mark Brentnall
The Qarnuah Turks – Ishwari Prasad
The Royal Gurjars : Their contribution to India – Naunihal Singh
The Rise of Islam and The Frontier of Bengal, 1204 – 1760 – Richard M. Eaton
Vijayanagar, Never to be Forgotten Empire – Suryanarayan Row

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Reference Articles:
A History of Sikhs : From The Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej